ENGLISH IN FOCUS English in Mechanical Engineering ERIC H. GLENDINNING LONDON OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1974.Osford University Pres, Bly Blase, Landon Wt san 019 4375129 (Students Edition) tsny 019 437501 3 (Teacher's Edition) (© Oxford University Press 1973 “Ai ih reserved. No part of tis publication may be reproduc it vecvliysem,ortoneaed, ia Sormer by any means, era chanical, photocopying, record or oierwise, witha pin permission of Oxford University Press hs book is sold subject 1 the condition that sal ot, by ay of Te ee therm be lent resold, hired out or obese crue ‘rae oon she's prior conent any [orm of Bindig Omer me erin which plished and thot smile condition ot Canon beg imposed onthe sbsequnt parce. Contents Unit 1 Enginoering Materials | READING AND COMPREHENSION Solutions to the comprehension problems EXERCISE A: Rephrasing EXERCISE B: Contextual reference Il; USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A: Classification of engineering materials EXERCISE B: Classification (cont.) EXERCISE C: However, therefore and because EXERCISE D: Language of measurement () Basic metric units ExeRcise E: Language of measurement ) Derived metric units ~ Exercise F; Language of measurement (i) Compound metric units I: INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A: Describing dimensions IV: GUIDED WRITING Stage 1: Sentence building Stage 2: Paragraph building V: FREE READING: Corrosion Unit 2 Vectors I: READING AND COMPREHENSION Solutions to the comprekension problems 1 2 3 3 4 4 4Contents EXERCISE A: Rephrasing PXERCISE B: Contertual reference EXERCISE C: Relationships between statements Ui: USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A: Classification of physical quantities EXERCISE p: Making definitions EXERCISE c: Making generalizations EXERCISE D: Lowerevel and higher-level generalizations Ul; INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A: Changing vector diagrams to waitten descriptions EXERCISE B: Sentence building IV: GUIDED WRITING ‘Stage 1: The use of the passive inthe deseription of an experiment Stage 2: Paragraph building V: FREE READING: Scales and graphe Unit3. Force I: READING AND COMPREHENSION Solutions to the comprehension problems EXERCISE A: Rephrasing EXERCISB A: Contextual reference EXERCISE C: Relationships between statements USE OF LANGUAGE BXBRCISE A: Instructions and results EXERCISE B: Making observations (3) EXERCISE C: Making observations (ii) EXERCISE D: Relative clauses (defining) EXEROISE E: Relative clauses (non-defining) EXERCISE F: Relative clauses (defining and non-defining) ‘EXERCISE G: Noun modification (i) Wi: INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A: Mathematical symbols used in engineering EXERCISE B: Greck letters and abbreviations used in engineering GUIDED WRITING Stage 1: Sentence building Stage 2: Paragraph building Stage 3: Using diagrams to illustrate the passage V: FREE READING: Gravity Unit 4 Friction 1: READING AND COMPREHENSION Solutions to the comprelension problems EXERCISE A: Rephrasing 16 16 "7 7 ” 18 8 19 ro at a 2 Contents vii EXERCISE ; Contextual reference EXERCISE C: Relationships between statements II: USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A: Instructions and results EXERCISE B: Making observations (i EXERCISE C: Making inductions EXERCISE D: Short-form relative clauses () EXERCISE &: Short-form relative clauses (i EXERCISE F: Short form relative clauses (ii) EXERCISE G: Noun modification (i) IM: INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A: Making recommendations based on a graph EXERCISE B: Making recommendations based on a table IV: GUIDED WRITING Stage 1: Sentence and paragraph building V: FREE READING: Lubrication Unit 5 Levers READING AND COMPREHENSION Solutions to comprehension problems EXERCISE A: Rephrasing EXERCISE 3: Contextual reference EXERCISE C:_ Relationships between statements Il: USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A: Completing a diagram EXERCISE B: Interpretation of diagrams [EXERCISE C: Paragraphs based on diagrams EXERCISE D: Describing the function of an object EXERCISE x: Combining sentences with an -ing clause EXERCISE F: Relative clauses with prepositions EXERCISE G: Noun modification (i I: INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A: Making comparisons based on a diagram IV: GUIDED WRITING ‘Stage 1: Writing a report of an experiment Stage 2: Illustrating the report with a diagram ‘Stage 3: Completing the report V: FREE READING: Beams Unit 6 Stress and Strain I: READING AND COMPREHENSION Solutions to the comprehension problems EXERCISE A: Rephrasing 40 40 40 0 41 41 a “4 45 45 46 46 46 48 48 ” 64 66vii Contents orem 6 exercise B; Problems and solutions 6 EXERCISE C: tight, -proof, resistant a Il: INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE B: Contextual reference EXERCISE C: Relationships between statements Ul; USE OF LANGUAGE a EXERCISE A: Definitions 1 EXERCISE A: Describing the shapes of objects EXERCISE B: [sentences 8 IV: GUIDED WRITING EXERCISE C: Predictions based on the properties of materials 68 Stage 1: Sentence and paragraph building EXERCISE D: Noun modification (jv) 6 Stage 2: Using diagrams to illustrate the passage EXERCISE E: Prepositions o y: FREE READING: The Wankel engine EXERCISE F: Making inductions 7 . Il; INFORMATION TRANSFER n Questions on Froe Reading Passages EXERCISE A: Inductions based on diagrams and tables n EXERCISE B: Stating laws n IV: GUIDED WRITING 4 Stage 1: Sentence building a Stage 2: Paragraph building 5 Stage 3: Using diagrams to illustrate the paragraphs a \; FREE READING: Factor of safety 16 Unit 7 Ideal and Practical Machines I: READING AND COMPREHENSION 8 Solutions to the comprehension problems 80 EXERCISE A: Rephrasing 2 EXERCISE B: Contextual reference 2 EXERCISE C: Relationships between statements 83 II; USE OF LANGUAGE 83 EXERCISE A: Predictions based on laws, generalizations and proven facts 83 EXERCISE B: Predictions based on unlikely suppositions 85 EXERCISE C: Toughen, arden, soften, et. 86 I; INFORMATION TRANSFER 87 EXERCISE a: Design specifications. be-+to, have +10, must 87 EXERCISE B: Design specications (cont.) 88 IV: GUIDED WRITING 88 Stage 1: Sentence and paragraph building 88 Stage 2: Using diagrams to illustrate the paragraphs 9 V: FREE READING: Cranes 0 “The Four-Stroke Petrol Engine I; READING 2 part I; The carburettor 2 ; parr 2: The valves 2 * pant 3: The fourstroke cycle 3 : MI: USE OF LANGUAGE 95 EXERCISE A: Cause and effect 95 :Introduction ‘The aim of this book is to develop a basic knowledge of how English is used for communication in mechanical engineering. It is intended for students who already know how to handle the common English sentence patterns but who need to learn how these patterns are used in scientific and technical writing to ‘convey information and to develop logical arguments ‘The exercises direct the student's attention to certain features of English Which re specific to scientific and technical writing. The aim isto provide the student with a strategy for reading more dificult engineering texts and to Prepare him for making effective use of English in his own writing Although the emphasis is on English as a medium of expression in mechani- cal engineering science, the basic elements of the language have not been neglected. Pattern practice is provided, particularly in the grammar and paragraph writing sections of each unit, but this kind of work is always ‘resented in relation to a scientific context and not simply as an exercise in ‘making sentences for theit own sake. This book does not aim at teaching the subject-matter of mechanical engineering, and it does not aim at teaching grammatical structures and vocabulary as such. Its purpose is to show how language is used asa medium for the study of mechanical engineering science, and so to give students a ‘rounding in one particular set of communication skills in English1 Engineering Materials 1 READING AND COMPREHENSIO! ‘Bngineers have to know the best and most economical materials to use. Engineers must also understand the propertcs of these materials and how they can be worked. "There are two kinds of materials used inenginecring memls and nonmeials. ‘We can divide metals into ferrous and non-ferrous metals *The former contain iron and the latter do not contain iron. *Cast jon and stecl, which are both alloys, or mixtures of iron and carbon, are the tivo most important ferrous metals. Steel contains a smaller proportion of Carbon than cast iron contains. *Certain elements can improve the properties Gf steel and are therefore added to it. *For example, chromium may be Sacluded to resist corrosion and tungsten to increase hardness, ‘°Aluminium, copper, and the alloys, bronze and brass, are common non-ferrous metals Study the following statements carefully and write down whether they are ths or not true according to the information expressed above. Then check Your answers by referring to solutions at the end of the passage." (@) Non-metals are used by engineers. (b) Cast iron contains more carbon then steel. (©) Chromium improves the properties of steel. (© Copper contains iron. (©) Bronze is an alloy saplastis and ceramics are non-metal; however, plastics aay ike metals, Plastics are classed into two types ~ thermoplastics aid thermosets, 'Thermoplastcs can be shaped and reshaped by heat +The following symbols are used i the solutions gual, means the same a. does nor equal, mean the same as Je, thatisto say thereforeZl \ Be. 2 English in Mechanical Engineering ‘ressure but thermosets cannot be reshaped because they undergo chemical changes as they harden. '¢Ceramics are often employed by engineers when ‘materia's which can'withstand high temperatures are needed, (©) Thormosets can be machined. (@) Thermoplastics are metals. (4) Ceramics can withstand high temperatures, Solutions (2) There are two kinds of materials used in engineering - metals and non- retals. (3) = metals and non-metals are used in engineering “metals and non-metals are used by engineers Non-metal are used by engineers (@)_‘Sicel contains a smaller proportion of carbon than cast iron contains. (7) ‘Cast iron contains a larger proportion of carbon than stel. = Cast iron contains more carbon than stel. (©) Certain elements can improve the properties of steel and are therefore ‘added to it. (8) For example, chromium may be included... . (9) ‘.e, Chromium is an example of the elements which are added to steel and can improve the properties of steel. Chromium improves the properties of stel. (@ Aluminium, copper and the alloys, bronze and brass, are common ‘non-ferrous metals. (10) fe. Copper is a non-ferrous metal. vt non-ferrous = does not contain iron tis nor TRUE that copper contains iron. 46) Abutainium, copper and the alloys, bronze and brass, ae common non- ferrous metals, (10) ie. Bronze and brass are alloys. Bronze is an alloy, (©) Plostics and ceramics are non-metals; however, plastics may be twachined like metals, (11) may be ~ can be lastics can he machined. cs are classified into two types ~ thermoplastics and thermosets, a, ie Thermosets are a kind of plastic ‘Thermosets can be machined. Engineering Materials 3 (© Plastics can be classified into two types - thermoplastics and thermo- sets, (12) i.e. Thermoplastics are a kind of plastic. Iti or TRUE that thermoplastics are metals, () Ceramics are often employed by engineers when materials which can withstand high temperatures are needed. (14) 4e, Engineers use ceramics when they need materials which can withstand high temperatures. Ceramics can withstand high temperatures. EXERCISE A Rephrasing Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words printed in italics with expressions from the passage which bave a similar meaning. EXAMPLE ‘There are two kinds of engineering materials ‘There are two kinds of materials used in engineering. 1. Nickel steel is a mixture of ion, carbon and nickel, 2. Chromium cam be included in steel to provide a good cutting edge, 3. There are many kinds of steel used in industry. 4, Ceramics are used by engineers where heat-resistant materials are needed. 5. Chromium steels resist corrosion. EXERCISE B Contextual reference 1. Im sentence 2, ‘they’ refers to (@) the engineers (@) the materials 2. In sentence 5, ‘the former’ refers to (@) ferrous metals (©) non-ferrous metals 3. Im sentence 5, the later’ refers to (a) ferrous metals (b) non-ferrous metals 4, In sentence 8, it’ refers to G) steel () iron 5. In sentence 13, ‘they’ refers to (2) plastics (b) thermosets (© thermoplastics4. English in Mechanical Engineering IL USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A Classiication of engineering materials Draw in your notebook the diagram below and complete it, using the in- formation from the reading passoge. | a [Note that this diagram clases engineering materials at four levels of ‘generality. Look atthe following sentences: Steel isa ferrous metal. {ron and steel are ferrous metals. Steel is an engineering material. Steel is a metal Ferrous metals are engineering materials. Metals are engineering materials. [Now write as many sentences as you can like those above based on the com- pleted diagram. EXERCISE B Classification (continued) Draw diagrams to classify the items in the following lists. Each diagram shiould have three levels. 1. alloys, copper, brass, pure metal, aluminium, metals. 2 braving, elesicare welding, soldering, metaljoining methods, welding, oxy-aceiylene welding. 5, measuring instruments, non-precision instruments, micrometer, vernier dupe, metre stick, precision instruments, slip blocks, foot-rule. Engineering Materuis > 4, units of ares, cubic metre, metric units, millimetre, square metre, nese ‘nis, kilometre, units of volume. 5. milling machines, copy-niller, sbaping machines, driling vertical shaper, radial arm dril, machine tools 6, petro engines, extera-combustion engines, diesel engines, beat en ‘eam turbines, interna-combustion engines. 1, Binding, metal ceaning methods, aid cleaning, mechanical metho, or basting alkali cleaning, chemical methods. a. eahlar shapes, square, tingle, oval, iregular shapes, shapes. Ferre jemts, inseparable joint, welded joint, nut and bol ints ints, riveted joints, separable joints. to. fein sand casting, die casting, production processes, colling, easing ‘Now use the diagrams you have made to write paragraphs like the foliowing EXAMPLE “Nucl can be classified as pure metals and alloys. Copper and aluminisna are examples of pure metals and brass is an example of an alloy. EXERCISE C However, therefore, because {In this book you will meet many words which can be used to connect sate- ments. Three of the most common are: (1) however (@) therefore (3) because Look at these examples: (1) @ Copper does not rust. (b) Copper corrodes. (a+b) Copper does not rust; however it corrodes. (2) (@) Cast iron isa britle metal (Cast iron isnot used to withstand impact leads (eb) Cast iron isa brittle meta, therefore it isnot ws impact loads. (a) Titanium is wsed for aircraft frames (b) Titanium is light and strong. (ab) Titanium is used for aircraft frames because its ight and strong dita withstand {In (1), statement (b) qualifies statement (@) In (), statement (b) isa result of statement (a) In 9), statement (b) gives the reason why statement (1 [Now join each ofthe following pairs of statements, Write down Jp your notebook, using "however therefore’ or “cause asin the examples Qe —. a Le ahena ee wt a ca! a te ics 1. Chromium resists corrosion. Chromium is added to steels tomake them rust proof Cutting tools are made from high-speed steels. h-speed steels retain theit cutting edge at high temperatures, Go. these steels...) 3. Under sermal conditions aluminium resists corrosion Serious corrosion occurs in salt water. (. seious corrosion...) 4. Mangavesestel is very hard Manganese steel is used for armour plate. §. Bronze has a low coeficient of friction. Lrosze is used to make beatings. lm is used to make fibres and gears. na is tough and has a low coeficiet of fretion is used to coat other metals to protect them, Tin resists corrosion. 2 Tin is expensive ‘Tae cuais of tn applied to other metals are very thin (the coats of tin...) 9. Stainless steels require little maintenance and have high strength, Stainless steels are expensive and difficult to machine at high speeds, 10. Nicksl, cobalt and chromium improve the properties of metals, Nickel, cobalt and chromium are added to steels. 2 6. EXERCISE D Language of measurement (): Basic metric units the dingrams and memorize the examples. L_ ‘We can describe the eapacity of this tank in three ways ‘The tank has a capacity of twenty-four cubic metres. ‘The tank ig twenty-four cubie metres in capacity. ‘The capacity of the tank is twenty-four eubie metres. 3 > Engineering EXERCISE F Language of measurement (ji): Compound metric units ‘Look again atthe diagrams on pages 6-8 and the language used 19 d the diagrams. Copy the following table into your notebook and co: by filing in the spaces. Tore et ® 4 ‘Compound units are made up of basic and derived units of measurement, (a) The stroke / means ‘per’, and indicates that the unit in front of the stroke is divided by the unit after the stroke. (b) Where there is no stroke between two units, the units are multiplied together. [Now rewrite the following sentences completing them by filing in the spaces. EXAMPLE ‘moments ‘The moment of a force is measured in newton metres. Short form = Nm "The moment of a force is found by multiplying a force by a distance, 1. velocity Velocity is measured in metres per second. Short for ‘Velocity is found by ..-a...by 8. 2, pressure Pressuse is measured in... Per .-. ‘Short form = N/m? Pressure is found by...8.. by... 3, density Density is measured in kilogrammes .. cubic mete Short form =... Density is found by dividing a... by. 4, stress Stress is measured in newtons per ‘Short form = N/mm? Stress is found by... a... by an area 5, acceleration Acceleration is measured in metres per sevond ss Short form ‘Acceleration is found by .. a ...by atime, za=2m727 77 | =| -h ua 2 ahsds gle ae est Tene: oh : SR: 10. Faglish in Mechanical Engineering JET INFORMATION TRANSFER Se EXERCISE A Describing dimensions ‘Describe the following objects in as many ways as you can. 2m Ie Ne! 389 = 1 toot pte Engineering Materials 11 IV GUIDED WRITING eee STAGE | Sentence building Join the following groups of sentences to make eleven longer sentences, ‘using the connecting words printed at the beginning of each group (except jgroup 6). You may omit words and make whatever changes you think are Fecetsary in the word order and punctuation of the sentences, BXAMPLE ‘BECAUSE/AND/HOWEVER Plastics are used widely in engineering. ‘They are cheap. ‘They have a resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Plastics are not particularly strong. = Plastis are used widely in engineering because they are cheap and Ihave a resistance to atmospheric corrosion; however they are not particularly strong. 1. AND ‘There are two types of plastics ‘Thermoplastic are plastics. “Thermosets are plastics. 2, AND/WHEREAS/AND. ‘Thermoplastics will soften when heated. ‘Thermoplastice will harden when cooled. ‘Thermosets set on heating. ‘Thermosets will nt remelt. 3. rRom/TO Plastics are used to make a great variety of products. Plastics are used to make textiles. Plastics are used to make engineering components 4, suc aS Plastics are available in many forms. Plastics ae availabe in the form of sheets, tubes, rods, moulding powders and resins. 5.10 ‘Various methods are used ‘These methods convert raw plastic into finished products 6. Compression moulding is a common method Compression moulding is used for shaping thermosets. 7. wiTH/waicH “The equipment consists of a press. i ii Siento12. English in Mechanical Engineering ‘The press has two heated platens. ‘The two heated platens carry an upper and a lower mould 8. THEN Powder is placed in the lower mould. ‘This is moulding powder. ‘The upper mould is pressed down on the lower mould. 9. ro/waicH The pressure and the heat change the powder. ‘The powder becomes liquid plastic. ‘The liquid plastic fills the space between the moulds. 10. WHEN/AND ‘The chemical changes have taken place. ‘The mould is opened, ‘The moulding is extracted, UL ay Plastic bowls are made. ‘The compression moulding method is used, STAGE 2 Paragraph building Now group the completed sentences into two paragraphs and give a title to the passage. Include the example asthe fist sentence of your passage. VY FREE READING Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you donot know, look them upin your dictionary. Try o find additional examples of the points you have studied in this unit CORROSION Corrosion attacks all engineering materials, expecially metals. Corrosion is any chemical action which harms the properties of a material. It reduces the life of a material and increases the cost of a structure, For example, a steel bridge must be repainted regularly to protect it from rust. Various metals hhaye therefore been developed to resist corrosion. Among them are the stainless steels. These metals contain from 12 to 35% chromium which forms a very thin layer or film of chromium oxide on the surface of the ‘metal. This flm protects the metal from corrosion. Alloys made from copper and nickel are also corrasion-resistant. For example Monel metal, Which contains roughly 60% nickel and 30% copper, is resistant to both {res and salt water corrosion. It is therefore used for marine engine parts, Engincering Materials and for other surfaces like ships’ propellers which are iu coniwo! with sea water. Cupronickels, which contain a smaller proportion of nickel, have a similar resistance to fresh and sea water. They are mainly used to ms tubes. When two different metals touch each other in the presence of moisture corrosion occurs. This type of corrosion is known as yalvanic or electto- Iytie corrosion because it has an electrical cause. The metals and vie ‘moisture act like a weak battery and the chemical action which re corrodes one of the metals. If, for example, aluminium shests ate riveted ith ‘copper rivets, the aluminium near the rivets will corrode in damp couli- tions. [No material can be completely cortosion-resistant. Even stainless steis will corrode. Engineers can, however, fight corrosion. For example, they ‘can use high-purity metals because these metals are more resistant zhan alloys. They car also make sure that two dissimilar metals are not allowed {otouch each other. Finally engineers can protect the surfaces of the metals. in many different ways. One of the most common methods is to paint them. LL Her 1“2 Vectors 1 KEADING AND COMPREHENSION eee ‘We deal with many different physical quantities in engineering, *They can be divided into two groups ~ scalar and vector quantities. “Both have size, or magnitude, but only vector quantities possess direction. “Mass, volume ‘and length ave scalar quantities. “Force, which we measure in newtons, Dostesses magnitude and direction. “Force, then, isa vector quantity. “Other examples are acceleration and velocity. (#) There are two physical quantities in engineering. (W) Scalar quantities have magnitude. ()_ Acceleration has direction. (a) There are only three vector quantities in engineering. "Any vector quantity can be represented by a vector. *The straight line ‘acb in the diagram isa vector which represents a force. 'If we calculate its Tength we find that it is proportional to the magnitude of the force. *!The direction ofthe line indicates the direction of the force. !*The line is vertical ‘the direction of the force it represents is vertical. "It is important the foree is acting. “The arrow-head ion of the force is upwards. fon the line shows thatthe sense of di fe) We can use a vector to represent velocity. (8) Te straight line a-b in the diagram is a force. Vectors 15 (@ The arrow-head on line a-b shows that the force is acting in a vertical direction. (@). The longer the line a, the greater the force it represents Solutions (@)_ We deal with many diferent physical quantities in engineering (1) fe. There are many physical quantities in engineering. © There are WORE THAN TWO physical quantities in engineering. (@) Both have size, or magnitude, but only vector quantities possess direc tion. (3) ie. Scalar quantities have size, or magnitude ‘and Vector quantities have size, or magnitude. sire = magnitude ‘1. Scalar quantities have magnitude. (©) Other examples are acceleration and velocity. (7) Le. Other examples of vector quantities are acceleration and velocity. ‘Acceleration is a vector quantity. ‘Vector quantities have direction. ‘Acceleration has direction. (@ Force, then, is a veetor quantity. (6) Other examples are acceleration and velocity. (7) die, Foroe, acceleration and velocity are examples of vector quantities. & Force, acceleration and velocity are the only vector quantities. ftiomor TRUE that there ae only three vector quantities in engineering. (©) Any vector quantity can be represented by a vector. (8) but Velocity isa vector quantity. (See ().) We can use a vector to represent velocity. (0) The straight line a-b, in the diagram, is a vector which represents @ force. ) ‘The straight line a-b, in the diagram, isa vector. ‘The straight line a-B, in the diagram, is NOT a force. ‘The line is vertical because the direction of the force it represents is vertical. (12) jie, The direction of the line shows that the force is acting in a vert direction ‘The arrow-head on the line shows that the sense of direction of the force is upwards. (14) jie. The arrowhead shows that the force is acting upwards and not down- wards. "The arrow-head on line a-b does NOT show that the force is ac vertical direction.16 English in Mechanical Engineering (8) If we calculate its length we find that iis proportional to the magnitude of the force. (10) The length of the line is proportional to the magnitude of the force it represents. The longer the line a-b, the greater the force it represents EXERCISE A Rephrasing Rewrite the following, replacing the words printed in italics with expressions from the passage which have a similar meaning 1. We calewate mass in kilogrammes, 2. The arrow-head indicaes the sense of direction of the force. 3, Scalar quantities have magnitude but not direction, 4. The direction of the line shows the direction ofthe force. 5, The size ofthe force is 10 N. EXERCISE B Contextual reference 1. In sentence 2, ‘they’ refers to 2. In sentence 3, "both refers to 3. In sentence 10, ‘it’ refers to (a) the length F (0) the force é 4. In sentence 10, ‘its’ refers to (a) the force's EXERCISE B Making definitions # ©) te ies Sty the lloving dng 5. insnens 1 was to) eee ce ware [aaa] (@) physical quantities (b) two groups (@) scalar and vector quantities (©) physical quantities, Vectors 3 I USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A Classification of physical quantities Copy the following diagram into your notebook and complete it to ma classification of physical quantities. Use the information from the reading passage to help you. [ [ 1 1 maven | I some | Use the completed diagram to make classifying sentences, EXAMPLE Volume isa scalar quantity ne mo. a Fe ee EXERCISE C Relationships between statements Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace and re- ‘order the words inthe sentences where necessary, _ EXAMPLE although () Both have size, or magnitude, bur only vector quantities possess direction. We can make a classifying sentence about a scalar quantity by jouue Ca) and (b): Although both have size, or magnitude, only vector quantities possess ' Sircston : ‘Aealequanny sa payin quanti. examples of () in addition (11) ‘We can then expand the sentence by including (): therefore (6) thus (12) ‘A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has magnituse but m+ for example 9) for this reason (14) cae ‘The expanded sentence defines a scalar quantity. It is a definition. Now write as many definitions as you can using the following table.18 English in Mechanical Engineering can extend a body hhas magnitude and direction presents a vector quantity a vector quantity ‘load a tensile force straight Line linear dimension | foree isa product of basic units a vector unit can be measured in a straight line a compressive force | dimension can stretch or compress a body a derived unit ‘physical quantity | can compress a body friction ‘opposes motion EXERCISE C Making generalizations tement called a general: ‘When we join (a) and (¢) only we make a type of stat ton, EXAMPLE, ‘A scalar quantity has magnitude but not direction. ‘Now write as many generalizations as you can based on the table, EXERCISE D Lower-level and higher-level generalizations ‘Statements which contain higher-level items are more general than statements ‘which contain lower-level items. Look at the following example: i) = t9 spine re " 3 “saree Statement (a) is the most general statement. When statement (a) is true, statements (b), (c) and (d) must also be true. Vectors 19 ‘Study the following sentences. Column (a) contains statements with lower- evel items. Column (b) contains more general statements with higher-level jtems. Write column (a) in your notebook then match each lower-level statement with a general statement from column (b). EXAMPLE Tron rusts “Metals corrode. a » 1. Tron rusts Engines consume fucl. ‘Metallic elements are added to steel to improve its properties. ‘Compressive forces shorten 2. Bronze contains copper and tin, 3, A square metre is made by ‘multiplying a metre by a metre, | bodies. 4. Chromium makes steel corrosion- | Metals corrode. resistant 55, A load of five tonnes compresses | Derived units are products of ‘concrete column. basic units. 66. Zirconia beat shields withstand | Alloys are mixtures of metals. ‘temperatures over 2000°C. 7. Vinylte can be shaped in a lathe, | Ceramics can resist high temperatures. 8, Railway lines extend in hot Plastics may be machined. weather. ‘9, Fourstroke internal-combustion | Metals expand when heated engines burn petrol, diesel oil and gas. IIL INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A Changing vector diagrams to written descriptions Express the following vector diagrams in words. Write your answers down in ‘your notebooks asin the example. EXAMPLE ‘ ab is.a vector. Ie represents a force of five newtons. & “The force acts in an upwards direction at thirty degrees to the horizontal. _ a scvecheamnen Bb mie re20. English in Mechanical Engineering 1 The force acts vertically upwards. 300m ‘The vector represents an acceleration of twenty 20mn? ‘metres per second squared. w. ‘The acceleration is in a north-westery direction, EXERCISE B Sentence building [Now join each set of three statements into a single sentence. EXAMPLE a-b isa vector. It represents a force of five newtons. Vectors 2 ‘The force acts in an upwards direction at thirty degrees to the horie ‘zontal, 4a-b isa vector which represents a force of five newtons acting in an ‘upwards direction at thirty degrees to the horizontal. IV GUIDED WRITING STAGE 1 The use of the passive in the description of an experiment Look at this sentence (2) Bill and I measured the extension io the steel bar. We would not normally write this type of sentence in a report on an engineer- ing experiment. Instead we would write: (b) The extension in the steel bar was measured. Sentence (b) is an example of the passive construction. The passive is common in scientific writing where the action described is felt to be more {important than the actors. Look atthe following examples of active and passive sentences: active passive We suspend a 1 kg mass from a ‘A.1 kg mass is suspended from a light bar. light bar, ‘We measured the distance between The distance between the mass and the mass and the fulerum. the fulerum was measured. We may calculate the moment of the The moment of the force may be force in two ways. calculated in two ways. [Now rewrite each of th following sentences inthe pasive. 1. I we place a smooth roller on an inclined plane, it ill eax down the ae. 2. Two oer foros act onthe ole. 3. We can apply this force in any direction providing one component sts up the plane. 4. We call the third fore the normal reaction - R. 5. We ean therefore draw a triangle of forces for the system, 6 The diagram shows this fore ~ P~ acting parallel othe plane. in the diagram, this force . . . .) 1. To keep the rll in equilibrium we must apply a force t it (Aor...) <_ Teor ee Pereea 22 English in Mechanical Engineering 8, One is the force due to gravity - F ~ which we can consider to act vertically downwards through the midpoint of the roller. 9, Wernow find that we have an example ofa tee-force sytem. (its. now... that we...) 10, As we asume the roller and plane tobe absolutely smooth, this reaction is at right angle to the surface ofthe plane. STAGE 2 Paragraph building Draw the following diagram and label the forces P, R, and F, on it. Then rearrange the passive sentences so that they make a logical paragraph of which your diagram is the illustration. Sentence 1 is already in the correct position. V_ FREE READING Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you donot know, look them upin your dictionary. Try to find additional examples of the points you bave studied in this and other units. SCALES AND GRAPHS In engincering it soften necessary to describe quantities and relationships. ‘Wecan give a pictorial representation of vector quantities by using vetors as describe inthe fst reading pasage inthis init. Scalar quantities are simply described by giving ther magnitude in suitable unit of measure rent, For example, we can describe the mass of @ body as a quantity of ‘grammes, the eapacity of a container as a numberof cubic metres and & Period of time asso many seconds, We can also illustrate sealar quantities by points or divisions on a scale. Thus, a clock i a scale for measuring time andthe elock hands indicate the pasage of time. Similarly a metre stick is scale for meaturing length and a thermometer is a sale for seasuring beat. Scales can also be used to make calculations. For example, enginers use slidesaes for quick multiplication and division, The slide-ule consists of two logarithmic scales. ‘When there isa relationship between two sets of observations, we can often express this a8 mathematical formula. We can alo use a graph, Vectors 23 'A graph gives a visual representation of the relationship. This is often fice dco thn aw For exami i emake a ah 0 ‘compare the safe working loads of stel ropes with the circumference of Hea Se eaay to se how the safe working load varies wih the ‘Grcumference, In adition we cam use the graph as an information store father Hike a simple computer. In this way a graph can present at a glance the information contained ina law ora collection of tables. “\ more complex Kind of raph is the nomograph, This can show the relationship between more than two variables. A simple nomograph can Consist of a number of scales erranged in a special shape. For example, three scales could be placed parallel to each other or inthe form of the fetter N, oreven in curves, Such a nomograph is read by drawing a straight Tine to out through al three sales. With a nomograph of this type an fnsineer could coreate information on the horse-power of a motor, its Speed, and the diameter of driving shaft necessary to transmit the motors "More complex nomographs are made on special graph paper and may even bein three dimensions.3 Force I READING AND COMPREHENSION SS We can deseribe a force only by its effects, 7It cannot be measured directly like a length. A force can start something moving. “If we push against a ‘small object it moves. °A force can also stop something moving or hinder motion. ‘If we brake a moving car it slows down and will eventually stop. "Suspend a heavy mass from a copper wire, *The wire extends, showing that 2 force can stretch a body. "Forces may also compress, bend or even break an object. (a) Length can be measured directly, @) A force can slow down & moving object. (©) A force can cause movement, (@) A body can be compressed by a force, (© A heavy mass can exert a force A force can be one of attraction. **The force of attraction exerted by the ‘huge mass of the earth is called gravity. "7f we pick up a stone, then release iti falls to the ground because of gravitational force. !"Gravity isan example of @ natural force. **Whether a force is naturally or deliberately exerted it ‘cannot exist by itself. ‘*Forces must always oocur in pairs, never in isolation “When a force acts on a rigid body itis balanced by an equal reaction force Which acts in the opposite direction. !7If a man stands on a slippery surface ‘and brings a force to bear on a heavy load, the reaction force makes him slide backwards. "*Similary ifa man fires a rifle, the force ‘vhich pushes the bullet forwards will be matched by a force which makes the gun push backwards ‘against his shoulder. ©) Gravity isa force. (g) Deliberately exerted forces can exist alone, (b) Natural forces are forces of attraction. (When a force acts on a rigid body, the magnitude of the reaction force depends on the sizeof the rigid body. Force (The force which pushes a gun backwards when itis fred is a te force. Solutions (@) Tt cannot be measured directly like a length. (2) jie, A force cannot be measured directly but a length can be measured directly Length can be measured directly. , (@) A force can also stop something moving or hinder motion. (5) = A force can stop something moving. and A force can slow down something which is moving. "A force can slow down a moving object. (© A force can start something moving. (3) = A force can cause something to move. A force can cause movement (@ Forces may also compress, bend or even break an object. (9) jie, An object can be compressed, bent or broken by a force. ‘an object (here) =a body A body can be compressed by a force. (© Suspend a heavy mass ftom a copper wire. (7) The wire extends... (8) ile. ‘The wire extends because the heavy mass is suspended from showing that a force can stretch a body. (8) I is the force exerted by the heavy mass that stretches the wire. A heavy mass can exert a force. (O) The force of attraction exerted by the huge mass of the earth is exlled ssavity. (11) ie, Gravity isa force. (@ Whether a force is naturally or deliberately exerted it cannot itself. (14) ie. A naturally exerted force cannot exist by itself ‘and A deliberately exerted force cannot exist by itself. by itself = alone Deliberately exerted forces CANNOT exist alone. (t) The force of attraction exerted by the huge mass of the earth is gravity. (1) i.e. Gravity is a force of attraction Gravity is an example of a natural force, (13) ie, Gravity is a natural force. Gravity is a natural force and it is also a force of attraction. It is NoT TRUE that natural forces (ie. all natural forces) are forces attraction. r = = — = =e See ~~ es26 English in Mechanical Engineering (When a force acts on a rigid body it is balanced by an equal reaction force which acts in the opposite direction. (16) ‘ue, When a force acts on a rigid body there is a reaction force of the same ‘magnitude as the force which acts on the body. When a force acts on a rigid body the magnitude of the reaction force depends on the magnitude ofthe force acting on the body. it is Nor TRUE that when a force acts on a rigid body the magnitude of the resetion force depends on the sire of the rigid body. 4) If man stands on a slippery surface and brings a force to bear on a hheavy lond, the reaction force makes him slide backwards. (17) ie, We slides backwards because of a reaction force, Similarly if man fies a rif, the force which pushes the bullet forwards will be matched by a force which makes the gun push backwards against his shoulder. (18) fue, The gun pushes backwards because of a reaction force. The force which pushes a gun backwards when itis fired is a reaction force. EXERCISE A Rephrasing Rewrite the following, replacing the words printed in italics with expressions from the passage which have a similar meaning, 1. A heavy mass may extend a copper wire. 2. Newton investigated the force of attraction exerted by the huge mass of the earth ‘The force which pushes a bullet forwards is balanced by a reaction force ‘A force cannot exist in isolation Gravity isa naturally exerted force. Grevitationel force isa force of attraction. When a rifle is fied it recoils gee" ‘When a force is brought fo bear on a rigid body there is an equal but opposite reaction foree. EXERCISE B Contextual reference 1. In sentence 2, it’ refers to —_(@) an effect (®) a force 2 In sontence 4,‘ refers to (a) a force (b) a small object 3. In somtence 6, it refers to (a) a moving car (©) 2 brake 1. lusentence 14, refers to (@) a foree () a naturally exerted force 5 216,‘ refersto (a) a force (©) a rigid body Force 27 EXERCISE C Relationships between statements Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace and re- tet the words inthe snenes where nese. mt for example (13) on the ober hand team forth eason 1) Inaction ©) ure example tht (19) tual Il USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A Inrcton ond reste i writ down Copy the clunn of instruction below ito your notebook. The wrt Sod amet cac senene inthe el colors sing the information from the reaingpssage Sentence | has been complsted for ou. instruction result 1, Push against a small object. ‘The object moves. 2. Brake a moving car. The car . 13 Suspend a heavy mass from a copper. The wire ... wire . 4, Release a heavy weight from a height of The weight .. ‘one metre, 5, Stand on slippery ground and push Our feet .. against a heavy load. 6, Hold a gun against your shoulder and ‘The gun fire it 7. Apply a force of SOON to a thin metal ‘The rod rod. t 8. Apply a force of 2 KN suddenly [Link] The casting iron casting. 2a) SSS sepia28 English in Mechanical Engineering 9. Apply a load of LKN to the end of ‘The upright... steel upright. Tt 250mm | 249.30 Jn a The force is balanced . 10. Apply a force to a rigid body. 11, Suspend a brick from a spring balance. The spring - 12. Strike a piece of glass with a hammer, The glass - EXERCISE B Making observations (i) ‘When we state the result of following an instruction, we make an observation. Look at this example: [Now write observations like this from each of the instruction-esult pairs in Exercise A, EXERCISE C Making observations (i) ‘We can write an observation in several different ways. Look at these examples: (@) using when: When we push against a small object it () putting the result first: A small object moves if we push against it (@) using the passive: Ifa small object is pushed against, it moves ‘A small object moves when it is pushed against. [Now rewrite each of the observations you made in Exercise B using pattern @), @) oF © EXERCISE D Relative clauses (defining) Look at the following sentences: (@) Loads cause tensile stress (&) The loads tend to pull a body apart. If the noun phrases in italics refer to the same thing, we can combine the two sentences into one by using a relative clause: Fore 9 (©) Loads which tend to pull a body apart cause tensile stresses Write down a single sentence for each of the following paits of ‘Make the second sentence into a relative clause and insert it into the first sentence at the place marked by dots. EXAMPLE "ATlever ... can be used to compare two masses ‘Such a lever has the fulcrum placed between load ané effort. "A lever which has the fulerum placed between load and effort can be ‘used to compare two masses. 1, Astrut is a member... ‘The member resists a compressive force, 2, The beams... are welded together. ‘They form the chassis ofthe truck. 3, Rust may attack certain metals. ‘These metals contain some proportion of iron. “4. We can combine information on the size of a force and the distance it roves, ina diagram... ‘The diagram is called a work diagram. 5. Sir Isaae Newton put forward a law... ‘The law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. EXERCISE E Relative clauses (non-defining) Compare the following sentences: (@) The mill which produces sheet see! was made in Scotland but the ill which produces tube steel was made in Sweden. (0) The mill, which produces sheet steel, was made in Scotland. In sentence (a) the relative clauses tell us which mill we are talking xbo» In sentence (a) we have two defining relative clauses. In sentence (b) we at ready know which mill we are talking about. The clause simply adios etsie Extra information about the mill, In sentence (b) we have & norms relative clause, Note the use of commas. In Frercise D you made sentences with defining relative clauses, In ts cnercise, make the second sentence into a relative clause and insert it into the th first sentence at the place marked by dots, You will write seutences non-defining relative clauses. EXAMPLE Brass... is used to make bolts and screws, Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. ‘Brass, which isan alloy of copper and zinc, is used to mi sotews. ke lta Tm ees ae ee! ate ee te! 1. The rectangular block of steel, . is fixed to the floor. ‘The block measures 100 by 200 by 10 mm, 2. The electric motor, . .., is linked to the driving shaft by a bet. ‘The motor has a mass of 400 kg. 3. Polished steel, ..., is in fact covered with tiny bumps. Polished ste! is normally described as lat and smooth, 4. Friction, .. > dissipates mechanical energy by convertingitinto heat energy. Friction is always present in a machine 5. Stainless steel contains chromium, ‘The chromium makes the steel corrosion-tesistant. EXERCISE F Relative clauses (defining and non-defning) Now join the following pairs of sentences and state whether the completed sentences contain defining or non-defining relative clauses. EXAMPLE The micrometer screw gauge, sleeve on which a thimble turns. ‘The mictometer screw gauge is used by engineers to obtain very accurate measurements. ‘The micrometer screw gauge, which is used by engineers to obtain ‘very accurate measurements, consists of a steel frame carrying a sleeve fon which a thimble turns, (non-defining) 1. The body is just on the point of sliding at the angle ‘The angle is known as the angle of friction. 2. A railway engine, .. ., draws a train of eight coaches, each of mass 17 tonnes, up a gradient of 1 in 40, The engine has a mass of 80 tonnes, 3. The screw-jack is basically a screw running through a fixed nut ‘The nut is incorporated in the jack. 4. As the cord is wound off the whee, the load cord, thus overcomes the load. ‘The load cord is attached to the axle, 5. The gear ... rotates in an opposite direction to the first. ‘The gear is last in an even series of gears in mesh. 6. Intermediate gears... , are often referred to as idlers. Intermediate gears do not affect the ratio of the gear train. 7. Hoisting winches of the frst group, ..., are termed single purchase crab winches. ‘These winches employ a simple gear train, 8. This diagram means that the tensile force .. . must exceed 3 KN. The tensile force will use permanent distortion. 9. Complicated mechanisms... are machines just as simple levers are ‘machines. ‘These complicated mechanisms make up an aeroplane engine. + Consists of a steel frame carrying a ++ is wound on and Foree 31 10. Malleable cast iron, ...., is tougher than grey cast iron. Malleable cast iron isa ferrous metal, IL, Steels... are called tool steels. ‘These steels are used to make tools. 12, The Kariba dam, ..., provides eletric power for Zambia. ‘The dam is situated on the Zambesi. EXERCISE G Noun modification () It we want to describe an object in greater detail we may use an adjective water — hot water metal - ferrous metal lever - simple lever We can also put a noun in front of a noun: a oylinder — a ste! cylinder 1 bearing — a brass bearing a filter ~ an air filter Many grammatical relationships are possible in Noun-+Noun constructions, ‘of noun compounds. Look at the following examples: () a diesel engine = an engine which uses diesel oil (b) a brass bearing = a bearing which is made of brass (©) carbon steel = steel which contains carbon @ acapstan lathe = a lathe which has a capstan Find further examples of each type in the following lst. Mark each phrase ©, (0), © or @). EXAMPLE phosphor bronze (¢) air motor lectric dill, turret lathe metal casting chromium steel conerete bridge steel plate heat engine wing mut aluminium alloy ‘What new relationships can you discover in the following list? Rewrite each combination to show the relationship between the two nouns. EXAMPLE a foot brake = a brake which is operated by foot ‘Wankel engine test piece heat treatment ‘water tube force system fuel gas band pump instrument lathe needle valve ‘eat lubricant dockside crane ‘mushroom valve32. English in Meckanical Engineering es Force 33 IML INFORMATION TRANSFER i818 tires point one four one five nine + uty uplsy i : aid seine EXERCISE A Mathematical symbols wsed in engineering - {tonne = 1,000 kg one tonne i equal fo one thousand Study the table on the opposite page. Now write out the following mathe- . equals ‘ilogrammes matical expressions in fll: - xy x doesnot equal y 1. force ac mass acceleration ‘uals rot 2 poner = work done x sass x velocity mass multiptied by velocity * Pome = time taken times . no sign momentum ‘momentum equals m muliplied by v a cece en aces between two times 4, efficiency = SEF OMPH 100%, quantities input + 822 igh divided by 0 ‘5, 4015 mm on all dimensions oe quantity stance speed equals the ratio of distance to 6. 6820 mm? = 682010-* m* Gveranother SP" Gre takes time taken * 1. ai: petrol speed equals distance divided bytimetaken 8. g= 981 ms? over 9, 400 mm? area 10. twenty kilometres per hour ‘one millimetre vertical is equivalent r0 five newtons sixty kilometres per hour is ‘pproximately equal 1 seventeen metres ae “ ee woe eee pmnes “oe te ee me ee iu mina re [ . eet 2 rte elton } 2 s greater than or ess than or equal i ‘equal to forty ‘to one hundred ‘ Seer eaenn re a 30 pnd and on es fe eee L EXERCISE B Greek letters and abbreviations used in engineering “The following Greek letters are used in engineering: alpha oom A beta x gamma Ze sigma 3 delta © tn epsilon ¢ phi a ela omega 8 theta “The following abbreviations are used in the mathematics of engineering: abbreviation in full see secant cose ccosecant tan tangent cot ‘cotangent [Now write out the following expressions in full 1 tang =a 21 radian = 87 73° Anm’n7a4" "72 "7 93°95 =] = —!8 wl34 English in Mechanical Engineering 3. power absorbed by brake = iR x2araW 4. average spat between Pand Q = # 5. R= Ji@P)*+0P)) 6 ite sin ON 9. V = der’ cota 10. 0 mat+4at? p sec 38 IV GUIDED WRITING ee STAGE | Sentence building Join the following groups of sentences to make 12 longer sentences. Where a connecting word is given atthe beginning ofa group, use it to join the sen. fences. Where there is no connecting word, use a relative clause. Make any Punctuation changes you think are necessary. 1. Wecan think ofthe weight ofa body as acting at one point. ‘This point is known as the body's centre of gravity. 2. avrnovert ‘A body will always act as if its mass were concentrated at is centre of gravity. {ts centre of gravity need not be within the body itself. 3. sew as ‘Tae centre of gravity of some regular shapes can be found by inspection, ‘Accube is a regular shape. 4. FOR EXAMPLE tis cay to make such regular shapes stand upright A cylinder will stand on its base. If body isto stand upright, the line of action ofits weight must act through the bate. ‘The line of action of its weight passes through its centre of gravity. 5 AN THEREEORE «rectangular solid is placed on one face its weight will act through the -soatre of the base. . . “The solid will stand upright Force 35 1. pur If the solid is tilted slightly, the line of action of its weight will move towards the edge of the base. 1e will stil fll within the base. 8. THEREFORE If the solid is tilted further, the line drawn vertically downwards from its centre of gravity wll fall outside the base. ‘The solid will topple over. 7 9. WHEREAS If a body returns to its original position after a slight disturbance it is said to be stable. Ifa body moves into a new position after a slight disturbance itis said 10 be unstable. 10, pecause Unstable structures can be dangerous ‘They have to be stabilized. 1, Cranes are normaly stabilized by a large counter-weight. ‘This counter-weight ensures that the total mass of the erane and its load always acts through the crane’s base, 12, soTHAT, Cranes often have a warning device which operates when the safe load is exceeded. ‘The crane is never in danger of toppling over. STAGE 2 Paragraph building Now group the completed sentences into two paragraphs. You will have to add ‘For example’ atthe beginning of sentence 6, ‘For instance’ at the begin- ning of sentence 11 and ‘In addition’ at the beginning of sentence 12. Give the passage the title ‘Stability’. STAGE 3 Using diagrams to illustrate the passage ‘Here are three sketches to illustrate the passage. wae36 English in Mechanical Engineering Label the sketches Diagram 1, Diagram 2 and Diagram 3 and insert references to them in the completed passage. For example, ‘See Diagram 2 ‘As in Diagram 1 ‘This i illustrated by Diagram 3 V FREE READING Vie Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you ‘do not know, look them up ia your dictionary, Try tofind additional examples of the points you have studied in this and other units. GRAVITY 'A force of attraction exists between every body in the universe. It has been jnvestigated by many scientists including Galileo and Newton. This iravitaional force depends on the mass ofthe bodies involved. Normally it is very small but when one of the bodies is @ plane, like the earth, the foree is considerable. Everything on or near the surface of the earth is attracted by the mass of the earth. The greater the mass, the greater is the ‘earth's force of attraction on it. We cal this foree of attraction gravity ‘Because of gravity, bodies have weight. We can perceive weight only ‘when a body resists gravity. For example, when we pick up a stone there ‘are two forces involved. One isthe lifting force we exert and the other is the force of gravity which attracts the stone downwards and thus gives it ‘weight. When a body escapes from the influence of the earth's gravitational pill, it can become ‘weightless’. For example, the centrifugal force of Spacecraft spinning in orbit round the earth cancels the effect of gravity. ‘The ctew therefore experience weightlessness. One of the minor dis- advantages of weightlessness is that normal pens will not write because the ink is not attracted by gravity to flow out ofthe pen. If the space crew land on the surface of the moon, they experience the ‘much weaker force of gravity exerted by the moon. On the moon they ‘weigh less than on the earth. Special training is necessary to help them to ‘walk on the moon's surface. "To simplify engineering calculations, itis assumed that gravity is the same everywhere on the earth's surface, and that for every kilogramme of imass the earth exerts a force of 981 newtons on a body. In fact gravity fers slightly from place to place because of the shape of the earth. It is freatest at the poles where the earth is flattest and is least at the Equator. 4 Friction 1 READING AND COMPREHENSION whenever one surface moves over another, a force is set up whicl resis: the movement. This force, which we call friction, always opposes motion st exits in every machine. ‘It can be reduced by lubrication but never completely moved. “In general, the fore opposing motions slightly Brest ‘eteve one surface starts moving over another susface than after moveroen! peor ted. “This slightly greater force is called static friction, "The Fosse ve crmest be overcome to keep one surface moving over another is Known Is sliding friction. *Static frition is greater than sliding friction. en there is movement between surfaces. (} Wecan remove el sliding friction by lubricating moving surfaces, {© To start a body moving requires a greater foree than to Keep it moving (© Sliding friction opposes motion. (©) Friction is a force. (@ Friction always oocurs wh the value of siding fretion depends onthe nature ofthe wo cfs Foes oes "oThustriion betwen swo rou planks ea” be reese naade smooth Sliding frtion independent of ves ns contact. theory atl bake Fae Wi SES ae es ngeone of rete surface aren past a Braking op mor qusky and therefore snot wed. **One oh ran ee ald be note. "We ean make the sora reaction Beit {io a esc unce asags by doubling the mass arid Uy oe Nt" rae co we in hat sding rion btwesa te sures rye ve te mass ears liding Fortin is ao has" deere aeons proportional othe fasion between Ue sass” contact (0 Whenthe atea of surfaces in contact is increased, siding, evn Deswese them is increased. Qo oe a ee ee38 English in Mechanical Engineering (@) Large brake pads are used instead of small ones because they exert a greater braking force (8) ‘Sliding friction between rough planks is greater than between smooth planks. Ifthe mass ofa body sliding over another is increased, the sliding friction force between them will also increase. _Tewehalve the area of surfaces in contact, we will halve the sliding fiction ‘between the surfaces, Solutions (2) Whenever one surface moves over another, a force is set up which the movement. (I) Whenever = always ‘Le, When there isa movement between two surfaces a force is always set up. ‘This force, which we call friction... (2) ‘The force which is et up is called friction Friction always occurs when there s movement between two surfaces. () It can be reduced by lubrication but never completely removed. (4) i.e, Friction can be reduced by lubrication but never completely removed. Friction (here) = static friction and sliding friction ‘ie, Weecan reduce sliding friction by lubrication but we can never remove all, stiding friction, ‘We CANNOT remove all sliding friction by lubricating moving surfaces. (©) In general, the force opposing motion is slightly greater before one surface starts moving over another surface than after movement bas started. (5) ie, The force which must be overcome to start one surface moving over ‘another is greater than the force which must be overcome to maintain movement Te start a body moving requires a greater force than to keep it moving. (®) This force, which we cll friction always opposes motion. (2) jie, Friction opposes motion. Friction (here) = static and sliding friction. ‘Sliding fiction opposes motion. (©) This force, which we cal friction, always opposes motion. (2) ite. Frietion isa force. (0. Stiing tition is independent ofthe area of surface in contact (11) ‘ie, Tncreasing the area of surfaces in contact will not increase the magnitude of siding fection between the surfaces, Friction 39 Itis wor TRUE that when the area of surfaces in contact is increased, sliding friction between them is also increased, (@) In theory «small bake pad will exert as much braking force as a large cone of greater surice aa (12) ie, Theoretically, smal brake pads willexertas much braking force as large ones tut Ta practice a small ped will wear down more quickly and therefore is not used. (13) te. Lange pads are used in practice because they do not wear down so Sy enn dt hp ens ait a upd ited of silos because they exert a greater braking force. (@) Thus friction between two rough planks can be lessened if they are made Smooth Faas ook te gsr mien the planks are rough than when they are Smooth oo aE (ate) ential ition = Sea tt ewe rough plsks is Breater than Between smooth planks, (This shows that siting friction is proportional to the reaction between surfaces in conta. (18) ve en he wo scsin contacts ines, ing friction is also increased. sur Wee Re aomal eon been eno mice in cont twice as large by doubling the mass carried by one surface. (15) jie. The reaction bein Surfces in contact inereases as the mass carried Ith mass of bats oer another increased, the sliding friction ‘force between tem vil also increase. dng fiction independent ofthe area Of surface in contact. (11) eel twat sfcsncontc we wil not ae ang ton tween them, Trawhatve taps of surfaces in contact we will Nor halve the sliding Iriction between he surfaces. EXERCISE A Rephasing Rewrite the following replacing the words printed in italics with expressions from the passage which hve a similar meaning. 1. Friction always resist motion. : 2 Friction ean be lsd by oiling the moving, surfaces40 English in Mechanical Engineering 4, The force which must be overcome to keep one surface moving over another is smaller than stati friction. 4. Moving surfaces which touch each other must be lubricated. 5, Ifthe areas in contact are made twice as large the force of sliding friction will remain the same. 6. Friction opposes movement. EXERCISE B Contextual reference 1. In sentence 2, “this force’ refers to (a) the force which resists the move- ment (©) the force which moves one sur- face over another (@) friction (b) motion (@) a machine (©) fiction (@) the two surfaces (©) two rough planks (©) sliding and static fiction (@) braking force (b) brake pad (0) 8 law of friction 2. In sentence 3, ‘it’ refers to 3. In sentence 4, “it refers to 4, In sentence 10, ‘they’ refers to ‘5. In sentence 12, ‘one’ refers to EXERCISE C Relationships between statements Place the flowing expresions inthe sentences indicated. Replace and re the onde th sentences where necesny. Where sentences are {nicated, jin them using the expresion given. “ tn the oter hand (?) akbough (12419) whereas (647) however (13) in more general terms (8) similarly (17) for instance (10) we can conclude (18) therefore (12) I1_USE OF LANGUAGE, EXERCISE A Instructions and results Copy the column of instructions below in yc book. The in your notebook. Then write down ‘and complete the results column using the information from the reading passage. Sentence 1 has been completed for you. Frietion 41 instruction result 1, Place a smooth roller on an ‘The roller rolls down the plas inclined plane. 2. push table across a rough floor. A force is set up which motion. 5, Double the forces pressing two Sliding ition between the two ‘moving surfaces together. surfaces is . 4, Lubricate two moving surfaces. Sliding frietion. . 5, Grease the surface of a shaft Sliding friction «6... rotating in a bearing. 1g wooden block We find that the force is 6. Measure the foree required to ‘greater than the force . - start the block moving and measure the force required 10 keep the block moving. 17. Lay the block on side A and measure the force required 10 keep the block moving. 8, Add a I kg mass to the block and measure the force required 10 keep the block moving, 9. Substitute a glass sheet for the friction board and measure the force required to Keep the block ‘moving. ‘We find that the force «is We find that the foree is - ‘We find that the force required 10 keep the block moving EXERCISE B Making observations (if) ‘Combine the instructions and results in (Geter to Unit 3 Exercise C, p. 28). Exercise A to make observations EXERCISE C Making inductions From one or more observations we can mal called an induction, Look at the following example: ke a special kits of penerErato Soirtmoyenseets ‘There are a number of generalizations in the reading passage which can act as inductions. You will ind them in sentences 2, 4, 8, 9, 11 and 18, Make ‘your own table as below and write these inductions in your column (b). . » 1 vee Filion ssseseeceeeseesee Q) z Friction 221121. Low seseee by lubrication, oe ® a) L ay Sliding ietion .00...222.. ag) "Now write in each space in column (a) of your table one of the observations which you made in Exercise B. Make sure tht the inductions andthe observa tions match. Then combine the observations and inductions. ‘we push against a small object it moves. This shows that when a force acts ona bed it may cause it to move, Friction 43 EXERCISE D Short-form relative clauses () ‘We have seen (Unit 3) that if two sentences each contain a noun phrase, and the noun phrases refer to the same thing, then the sentences can be joined together bya relative pronoun like which, EXAMPLE ‘The block is resting on a plane. ‘The plane is inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.» = The block is resting ona plane which is inclined at an angle of 30° (0 the horizontal. ‘We can make this sentence shorter by omitting which i: ‘The block is resting on a plane inclined at am angle of 30° to the Aorizontal. In the same way we can omit which i from the following sentence: The plane which i fying a on altitude of 2,140 metres is subjected to pressures of 80 kilonewtons per square metre. ‘The plane fying a am altade of 240 metres is subjected to pressures ‘of 80 kilonewtons per square metre. Now join the following sentence pairs omitting whick wherever possible. In each caze indicate whether the relative clause is a defining or « non- defining clause. 1, Steel... are known as alloy steels These secs are mined with one or more metalic elements, 2. Tests... are of two kinds ~ tests to destruction and tests within the clastic limit. ‘These tests ae applied to materials. 43. The power developed by the generator ‘The generator is revolving at 1,000 rein. 4, A dockside crane, ..., has a safe working load of 3x10" ks. ‘The crane is mounted on a set of rails. is 20 kW. 5, The distance .. is plotted on a graph against time taken, ‘The distance is travelled by a moving load, 6. These forces constitute a tensile stress, ..., which acts around the cir- ccumference of the cylinder. This stress is known as hoop stress. 1, The force ... was found to be 1,200 N. ‘The force was exerted on the clamps. 8. Bridges, roof trusses and cranes are structures ‘Such structures are designed to resist forces.| | 44 English in Mechanical Engineering EXERCISE E: Short form relative clauses Gi) Look at this eximple: "The steel beams are welded toyether. ‘The beams form the chassis ofthe truck, ‘We can join these two sentences in two ways’ {@) The steel beams which form the chassis ofthe truck are welded together. cor (b) The steel beams forming the chasis of the truck are welded together. In sentence (b) we have made the relative clause shorter by omitting whic ‘and changing the verb to its -ing form, What kind of relative clause does Sentence (a) contain ~ defining or non-defining? [the relative clause contains which-+a verb in the simple present we can omit Which and change the verb to its ~ing form, This rule can be applied if (@) the clause is a defining one ‘or (b) the verb is a verb of state ‘Verbs of state describe states not actions like ‘work’ or ‘run’. The most ‘common verbs of sate in engineering are measure aun weigh hold consist form [Now join the following sentence pairs omitting which wherever possible. In each case indicate whether the relative clause is defining or non-defining and underline verbs of state. 1, XY isa steel shaft Itcarries @ 300 mm diameter eccentric gear. 2, A flywheel, ..., has a diameter of 1°6 m. ‘The flywheel consists of a cast iron rim which is connected to a boss by spokes. 3. The driving belt... is 9 mm thick, It transmits power to the pulleys. 4. The towers, ..., support the main section of the bridge ‘The towers weigh a thousand tonnes each. 5. The tapping head has a spring clutch... “The clutch allows the tap to slip without breaking when the load becomes 6. Grooving tools, ..., are made of high-speed stel. Grooving tools cut slots or keyways. 17. The main shaft of the lathe drives the lubricant pump, - ‘The pump supplies cooling uid atthe tool cuting tip. 8, Bronze . is called phosphor bronze ‘This bronze contains 08% phosphorus. EXERCISE F Shor-form relative clauses (i) When the relative clause contains which-+have we can shorten it in two trays Look atthe following examples “Two tel sheets which havea thickness of 3mm each ae joined by rivets. = (a) Two steel sheets having a ticks Gr () Two steel sheets with thickness of 3 mm each are. 189 of 3 mm each ae joined by rivets. joined by rivets. ‘Now join these seitence pairs and omit whick where possible: 1. Grey cast iron is a soft close-grained cast iron . . ‘This cast icon has a relatively low melting point. 2. A diesel engine . . is called a slow-speed diesel ‘This engine has a running speed of 75 to 250 rev/min. 3, A dockside crane . .. is mounted on a set of rails. ‘The crane has a safe working load of 2,000 ke. 4, A milling machine . . . is known as a universal milling machine, ‘This machine has a swivelling table. EXERCISE G Noun modification (i) In Unit 3 we studied a number of noun compounds. Another common way ‘of modifying a noun can be seea in the following example: “The load is distributed uniformly. tis a uniformly distributed load [Now rewrite the following sentences in the same way" 1. The load was applied suddenly. 21 The forees are perfectly matched. 3. The bar is fixed rigidly. 4. The material corrodes easily. ‘5, The surface treatment was developed recently. 6. The crane hook is stressed heavily ‘7, The salt bath furnace is heated externally 8. The force was exerted deliberately 9. We work the forging plastically. 10. ‘The tool drum is controlled automatically.IIL INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A Making recommendations based on a graph Study the following graph, which shows recommended speeds for carbon steel drills on soft steel: ; | | 003030 a0 $0 diameter of dil in ilimetras ‘When we make recommendations we use should ot ought to, EXAMPLE For 40 mm drills a speed of 60 rev/min should be used. For 40 mm drills a speed of 60 revjmin ought to be used, Now, using the graph, write similar sentences giving the recommended speeds for drills of the following diameters. 1. 20mm 4.125 mm 2.25 mm 5. 30mm 3. 50mm 6. 15mm EXERCISE B Making recommendations based on a table ‘The table opposite shows recommended shaft limits for ball bearings of different bores: Friction 47 Shaft limits Bearing mm bore 7 mm Heavy Light Toading loading =12 = +0003 “000s 121-30 = +0005 0003 301-50 = +0007 04003 501-75 +0018 +0013 =0003 0000 15:1-100 +0023 +0016 —0005 —0003 1001-120 +0028 +0020 0010 0005 ‘We can use this table to write recommendations. EXAMPLES ‘The shaft limits fora ball bearing of 15 mm bore shouldbe 15-005 mm and 14997 mm. ‘The shaft limits for a ball bearing of 80 mm bore ought 10 be 80-023 mm and 79-995 mm for a heavily loaded shaft and 80016 mm and 79.997 mm for a lightly loaded shaft. Now write similar sentences giving the recommended shaft limits for the following: 1. a bearing of 10 mm bore 2. a beating of 30 mm bore 43. a bearing of 60 mm bore fora lightly loaded shaft 4. a bearing of 110 mm bore for a heavily loaded shaft 5. a bearing of 65 mm bore for both a heavily loaded and a lightly loaded shaft <48. English in Mechanical Engineering IV GUIDED WRITING vee STAGE | Sentence and paragraph building Join the following groups of sentences to make eight longer sentences. You are given some, but not all, of the connecting words which you will need. You may omit or change words where you think it is necessary, and you should provide appropriate punctuation. When you have fnished, the ‘ight sentences should make a logical paragraph. 1. ALTHOUGH) WHEN ‘The surface of a block of polished steel may seem perfectly Hat. We examine the surface with a powerful microscope. We see that the surface is covered with tiny “ills and valleys 2ae ‘We bring two steel surfaces together. ‘The surfaces will touch at only a few points, “These points are where one set of “hill meets another set. 3, RECAUSE/SO... THAT ‘The total mass of the steel is concentrated at these points ‘The pressure on the points is great. “The pressure causes the points of contact to weld together. 4. We apply a force to make one block of stee! move over another block. “We must first break the tiny welds. ‘The blocks will move, 5. FOR THIS REASON To start a surface moving over another surface requires a force. ‘This force is greater than the force required to keep the surfaces motion. 6. The greater force represents static friction. ‘The smaller force represents sliding friction. 7. One block slides over another. ‘The two surfaces scrape against each other. ‘This breaks off tiny pieces from each surface. 8, HOWEVER, 1F We lubricate the two surfaces, Cl fils the tiny valleys ‘The surfaces do not weld together. One block can move over the other. ‘Now turn to the Free Reading passage and compare the paragraph you have ‘written with the second paragraph in that passage, Friction 49 V FREE READING aioe Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you do rot know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional examples of the points you have studied in this and other units. LUBRICATION Friction can be useful. For example, the sorew-jack depends on friction between the body of the screw and the jack to prevent it running back under heavy loads. Belt drives depend on friction to prevent slipping. Brakes and vices are further examples of useful applications of friction. (On the other hand, friction in machines causes loss of power. Twenty per cent of the power of a motor cer is wasted in overcoming friction. Engi- neers try therefore to reduce friction as much as possible by good desiga. ‘They can also use materials with a low coefficient of friction for devices such as bearings. The third method used for reducing friction is lubrication ‘Although the surface of a block of polished steel may seem perfectly flat, when we examine it through a powerful microscope we see that it is covered with tiny ‘hills and valleys’. If we bring two steel surfaces together they will touch at only a few points where one set of ‘his’ meets another set, Because the total mass of the steel is concentrated at these points, the pressure on them is so great that it causes the points of contact to weld together. When we apply a force to make one block of stec! move over ‘another, we must first break these tiny welds before the blocks will move For this reason, to start a surface moving over another surface requires a force greater than that required to keep the surfaces in motion. This greater force represents static friction whereas the smaller force represents siding fiction. When one block slides over another the two surfaces scrape against cach other, breaking off tiny pieces from each surface. However, if we Tubricate the two surfaces, ol fils the tiny valleys so that the surfaces do not weld together, and one block can move over the other. “Lubrication, then, reduces friction and because the surfaces do not scrape against each other it reduces wear on the material. Although dry friction can be eliminated in this way, some power will sil belost depending (on the thickness of the lubricant used. Thus if the oil is too thick the Tubricant itself will offer some resistance to motion. Selection of the correct lubricant depends on many factors, chief among which are the operating speeds of the machinery which is lubricated and the temperature range within which the machine must operate. yu4I93 4343 43 SS ee5 Levers I READING AND COMPREHENSION When a force acts on a body it may cause it to move in a straight line or to turn about a point or to do both. 2A force ean make a body rotate around a point which isnot in its line of action. *If we push against the handle side of ‘2 door it will turn on its hinge and open. ‘The size of the turning effect of a force depends on the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between its line of action and the point about which the body turns. We call this point the fulcrum. *The turning effect ofa force about a fulerum is known as the moment of the force. “It is the product of the force and the listance at right angles between its line of action and its fulerum. (2) A hinge i a fulerum. (®) A force may make a body rotate about a point and move in a straight line atthe same time. (©) The greater the perpendicular distance between a point and the line of action of a force, the greater the turning effect of the force about that point (@)_ Tf we multiply length y by force F, we will obtain the moment of the force about point P (©) The moment ofa force = ——_foree_ perpendicular distance between line of action and fulerum ‘he iever is one application of the principle of the moment of a force shout a point. The lever isa simple machine, #°An example is the crowber, ‘hich is used to move large loads by means of smaller efforts. '*Diagram 1 Levers 51 shows a crowbar being used to lft a heavy block. !*The mass of the block is the load, the heel of the crowbar is the fulcrum and the force exerted by the man pressing down at X is the effort. *9In the diagram a and b represent respectively the perpendicular distance between the effort and the fulerum and the perpendicular distance between the load and the fulcrum. “By the principle of moments we can say that the man will just balance the load when load xb effort x a: Any increase in the effort will aise the load further and may eventually cause it to overbalanee. bo ——> a} ‘utero ‘of the principle of the moment of @ force (©) The lever is the only applica about a point (@) The crowbar is @ simple machine. (1). Simple machines can use small efforts to move larger loads. ‘Levers can be divided into three groups or orders. *"They are classified according to the relative positions of the load, the effort and the fulerum. *8°The positions are as follows . Jfirst order: fulcrum between load and effort second order: load between fulcrum and effort third order: effort between fulerum and load. (A crowbar isa lever of the first order. @_ With a crowbar, effort and load move in the same direction. (k) Al evers belong to a particular order. (© This diagram represents a third-order lever. toad ettort Solutions (2) If we push against the handle side of a door it will turn on its hinge and open. (3) i.e, The hinge isthe point about which the door turns.52. English in Mechanical Engineering ut «the point sbout which the body suens () We call this poor he fulerum. (5) tie. ‘The point about which a body turns isa folerum. SA hinge isa fulorum. (&) When afore ats on a body it may case it to move ina stright line cf to tuen about a point or to do both. (1) jie. A force may make a body (@) move ia a straight line (ii turn about a point Gil) move ina straight line and turn about a point turn = rotate viiyeae ay make a body rotate about a point and move in stright ne af the same time. (9 isthe produ ofthe force and the distance at ight anges between is Tine of action and its fuleram. (7) Tt = the turning effet of @ force the distance at sight angles = the perpendicular distance fulorum — the point about which a body turns die. The turning effect of a force is the product of the fore: and the Pet” esdislr distance between its ine of action andthe point about which it tums, ‘rhe arootr the perpendicular distance between a pint andthe lie of see of a force, the greaer the turing effect of the force about that point (a ttisthe product ofthe force and the stance at sght anes Petween is line of action and its fulerum. (7) 1c = the moment of a force Point P isthe fulerum of force F. gts the distance at right anges between the ine of action of free F and point P. jig. The moment of force F about point P is x times F. Trace mnltiply eogth y by force F we wil sor obtain the moment of the force about point P. (@) itis the product ofthe fore and the distance at ight angles Pewee 8 Jine of action and its fulerum. (7) It = the moment of 2 force se. The moment of a force is equal to the force multiplied by the Pet ‘endieular distance between it in of action and its ulema penaioment of a force is NOT equal to the force divided by the per- pendicular distance between ts ine of ation and its fuerum. (The lever is one application ofthe priniple of the moment of 2 foree about a point. (8) cone # the only Levers 33 It is Nor TRUE that the lever isthe only application of tive principle of the moment ofa force about a point. (@ The lever is a simple machine. (9) An example isthe crowbar, which is used to move large loads by means of smaller efforts. (10) jie. The crowbar is an example ofa simple machine which is a lever. ‘The crowbar is a simple machine. (@) An example is the crowbar, which is used to move large loads by means (of smaller efforts. (10) ‘but The crowbar isa simple machine. ‘Simple machines ean use small efforts to move larger loads. (first order: fulerum between load and effort (18) Diagram 1 shows that the crowbar has its fulcrum between the load and the effort. ‘A-crowbar is a lever ofthe frst order. (Look at diagram 1 ‘An effort pressing down at X will raise the load. jie. Effort and load move in opposite directions. © With a crowbar, effort and load do Nor move in the same direction, (&)_ Levers cam be divided into three groups or orders. (16) very lever i either a fist, second- or third-order lever. All levers belong 0 a particular order. () third order: effort between fulerum and load (18) ‘This diagram shows load between effort and fulcrum. jie. This diagram represents a second-order lever. ‘This diagram does NOT represent a third-order lever. EXERCISE A Rephrasing Rewrite the following, replacing the words printed in italics with expressions from the passage which have a similar meaning. 1. A force may cause a body to furn about a point 2, The crowbar will cause the load to overbalance. 3 The moment of a force is the product ofthe force and the perpendicular Tintance between its ine of action and che point about whick the busly tus. 14, We measure the perpendicular distance between the force's tine of action and its fulerum. 5. The moment of a force isa vector quantity. 6, Levers are used to lift heavy blocks. 7, Levers may be divided into members of the first, second ar t f r r r54 English in Mechanical Engineering FXERCISE B Contextual reference 1 In sentence 3, it’ refers to (@) ahandle (b) a door 2. in sentence 4, ‘ts refers to (@) the force's () the turning effec’s 3. In sentence 5, ‘tis point’ refers to (a) the point about which the body turns () the line of action of the force 4. In sentence 7, “it refers to (@) the moment of a force (b) the fulerum (©) the magnitude of the force In sentence 15, it’ refers to () the effort () the crowbar (©) the load 6. In sentence 17, ‘they’ refers to (a) load, effort and fulerum (©) three orders (©) levers EXERCISE C Relationships between statements Pace the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace and re- order the words in the sentences where necessary. this means that 2) since (14-415) thus (2) it follows that (15) for example (3) I1_USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A Completing a diagram Copy out the table opposite and fill in the spaces in parts 1 and 2, using the info:mation from the reading passage. EXERCISE B Jnterpretaion of dlagrams ‘Look at the drawings underneath the table opposite, Decide which kind of lever each drawing represents Then fil in part 3 of your table, listing as many ‘examples as you can. EXERCISE C Paragraphs based on diagrams Now use your completed table to write paragraphs. EXAMPLE Levers which have the fulcrum placed between load and effort are known as first-order levers. A crowbar is an example of a first-order lever. =e seve Bee || L_, f at Wt iE hi % SZ BG 23 [Link] racing 35‘56 English in Mechanical Engineering EXERCISE D Describing the function of an object 1. Study the following diagram: — | 2, Write as many sentences as you can based on the diagram. EXAMPLE “An hird-order lever may be used to magnify a movement. 4. The sentences you made from the diagram describe the function of the Titersat Kinds of levers. We can describe the function of an object in tree ways (G) A third-order lever may be used 10 magnify a movement (A third-order lever may be wsed for magnifying a movement (2) A tirdorder lever may be wed ate means of magn/ying a maverext Se ARinte the sentences you made in setion 2, using pattern (@) oF (2), 4A Look back at the drawings on page $5. Decide in which way each lever jv used and write a sentence for each drawing. EXAMPLE Ae crowbar is an example ofa first-order lever used as a means of moving a large force with a smaller force. EXERCISE E Combining sentences with an-ing clause Look at the following sentences (a) Belt drives are not 50 positive as gear drives () Belts tend to slip on high loads. TThese can be combined into one sentence: (c) Bet sives are not so positive as ge dives, belts tending to sip on high loads. Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one sentence by using fsa ing clause jo the same Way’ eos Levers 1. A chain drive is similar to a belt drive except that the chais passes ove: ce, sprockets 08 the chain whee! (ent This arrangement ensures that no slip takes place. ‘2, When a resultant force acts on a body an acceleration is produces Its value depends on the mass of the body. 13 The length ofthe see! increases in proportion to the forces appl ts cross-sectional area 1s unchanged. 4, The sctew-jack i a serew revolving ina fixed nut ‘The screw thread provides a means of converting circu ‘motion ina straight line 5, Work done by a force can be represented by & work diagram in the fo ofa graph. ‘The serical axis represents the force and the horizontal axis the distance moved. 6. The wheelbarrow is an example ofa second-order lever. ‘The load is carried between the fulerum and the efor. +7. When a force is applied to the edge of a door it will urn, “The hinge forms a fulerum for the door. 6, Presure is measured in newtons per square metre The word per” implies thatthe force in newtons is divided by the area in square metres. 9. A crowbar i a first-order lever. ‘The fulerum is the heel ofthe crowbar. 10. The human forearm is a lever. ‘Thocffon is provided by the muscle joining the upper arm to the forearm. EXERCISE F Relative clauses with prepositions in books about engineering we find many relative clauses with a preposition before which, Such clauses are formed in the following way ‘The shaft runs in brass bushes. “The pulley is mounted on the shaft. = The shaft on whick the pulley is mounted runs ia brass bushes. Combine each ofthe following pairs of sentences into one seatense contain fa relative clause beginning with a preposition-+which: 1. The main bearings consist of steel shells ined with alumina, “The shaft runs in the bearings. 2. The point is called the fulcrum. ‘The body is free to rotate about the point. 43, The piers resist the load by a reaction of 5,000 N each, “The bridge rests on the piers. 4 The points are 600 mm apart. ‘The one Kilogramme masses are suspended from the points, og ay ‘a 858 English in Mechanical Engineering 5. The postion ofthe arms ofthe lever will depend on the sng, The forces are requited to act atthe angle. 6. The rope passes over one pulley inthe upper block The lower block is attached to the rope. 7. The distance is double the displacement ofthe load. The effort moves through the distance 8. Since earliest times man has tried to devise methods. ‘A small effort can move a large load by the methods. 9. The efficiency of most machines rises quickly to reach @ maximum value near those loads. ‘The machine is designed for those loads. 10, A gear box is a unit. ‘A compound gear train which can be altered by engaging different gears is housed in this unit. EXERCISE G Now modification Gi) Some Noun +-Noun combinations used in engineering contain a noun formed ‘rom a verb. Often the verb indicates the function of the object described. object: air-compressor funetion: to compress ait ‘We can express this information in a sentence: ‘An air-comprestor is used to compressa, jeate the function of the following objects. er and some in -or Write similar sentences to i ‘Note that some of the nouns end i speed governor ‘il cooler ‘mass carrier pressure regulator casing linet steam condenser pas generator shock absorber air heater harness tester What are the names of the following objects? Check the spelling in your dictionary, ‘8 device used to reduce the speed (of a motor) 1 device used to indicate the level of oil (in a gear box) 1 device used to grind the surface (of 2 metal plate) 28 device used to inject fuel into petrol or diesel engines) 2 device used to filter ol (For an engine) The information given in brackets does not form part of the name of the object. Levers 59 IIL INFORMATION TRANSFER ——_— EXERCISE A Making comparisons based on a diagram Study the following diagram. Then read the comparison of mild steel and low carbon steel which is based on the information contained in the diagram, See [rmteee | Secret | anentonse D I poapeie [alan cxmenon | tome? Ses | Soe p-—— | — —T Sey Low carbon steel contains between 0-08 and 015% carbon whereas mild steel contains between 0-15% and 035% carbon, Mild stelis stronger and harder than low carbon steel but i is less ductile. Low carbon steel is used to make tin plate, wire, rivets and pipes while mild steel is used for struc- tural sections, turbine rotors, marine shafts and for ship and boiler plates. Now write out and complete the following comparison of high and medium carbon steels using the information in the diagram, High carbon steel contains between... and ... carbon whereas medium carbon steel... High carbon steel is... and... than... stel, but its strength. .. slightly when its carbon contents... than 083%, In addition steel is less... than... steel, Medium carbon steel is used for High carbon stel with... content up to... is used to make woodcutting tools, ... . Car springs ... are made from ... with between... and hile metal cutting... are made from... with between ... and60 English in Mechanical Engineering IV GUIDED WRITING STAGE 1 Writing a report of an experiment Here area set of instructions fr a simple experiment. Change the instructions Jes BT port ofthe experiment as inthe fist example, and write the report in your notebook: instructions report 1 Pivota mete stick atts centre 1+ A-metre stick was pivoted at point © so that it balances. its centre point O so that it balanced. 2, Attach a cord to a 1 kg mass 2 ‘and suspend it from a point P ‘on the side OX, 200 mm from the centre point 3, Note what happens (the metre 3. It was noted that stick turns in an anti-clockwise rameioneeea direction). 44, Suspend a second mass of kg 4. ‘mass froma point onthe side OY. 5, Adjust the distance between OS. And the mass until the stick remains in horizontal position. 6, Measure the distance between 6. - eo (© and the second mass. . ‘and was found to be 200 mm. 4. Replace the second 1 kg mass with a 05 kg mass. 8, Note what happens (the metre stick turns anti-clockwise). 9, Move the 0 kg mass along OY ‘until the stick again balances. 10. Measure the distance between O10. ‘and the point S where the O'S kg ‘mass is suspended. 8, It was noted that “and was found to be 400 min STAGE? Mlustrating the report with @ diagram “The following is list of the apparatus which was used in the experiment. aa metre stick with a hole at its centre astand pieces of cord fone O'S kg mass two 1 kg masses Levers 61 Refer to the list and draw a diagram to ilustrate the experiment. Label ths points O, P, S, X and Y. Label the other point mentioned in the report a:+3 mark it in the diagram. STAGE 3 Completing the report State the aim of the experiment and write down the two conelusions 19 ‘complete the report. If you have difficulty you will find the two conclusions in the reading passage. ‘i conclusions {) The turning effect ofa force depends on (Gi) The turning effet of a force depends on... . V_ FREE READING Ae eeremenrnes ee ee ‘Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you do tot know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional examples of the points you have studied in this and other units. BEAMS When choosing a beam it is important to know its bending strength. The bending strength of the beam is the beams resistance to bending moments. Diagram I shows a beem supported at both ends and carrying @ load at its mid-point. The load makes the beam bend slightly. If we imagine the beain to consist of a number of longitudinal layers we can sce that the top layer ‘vill be compressed by the load, and the bottom layer will be stretched ss the beam bends. At the centre there will be a neutral layer which is neither stretched nor compressed, "The beam is subjected to bending moments because the reaction at the supports causes clockwise and anticlockwise moments as shown in the Sketch, If the beam fails, the top layers will be crushed and the boston: layers torn. This failure wll occur at mid-span where the bending momi=a. is greatest. oan wo0on 1 REACTION s000W REACTION 50:08 ae “nk:62 English in Mechanical Engineering ‘As most ofthe stress occurs at the top and bottom of a beam most of the material is concentrated atthe top and bottom inthe flanges. Material at the neutral layer is wasted as far as bending strength is concerned: In some girders, therefore, material is removed from the web. Diagram 2 shows a castellated girder, which is made by cutting a girder in two as shown, then reversing the ends and welding the two halves together. The result is stronger beam for equal amounts of steel. The depth of a beam is important in deciding what the resisting moment of the beam will be. The resisting moment of a beam resists the bending ‘moment which tries to destroy the beam. The force produced by the tension of the top layers and the force produced by the compression of the bottom layers form a couple across the depth of the beam to provide a resisting ‘moment. The deeper the beam, the longer the lever arm of the couple and hence the greater the resisting moment. In fact the beam’s bending strength increases proportionally to the cube of the depth. ‘The reasons forthe shape of the familiar I-section rolled stee! beam now become clear. The flanges contain a lot of stel to resist compression and tension. The web of the beam is thin because itis not subjected to these stresses. The beam is deep compared to its width because its depth gives ita greater moment of resistance to offset bending moments. 6 Stress and Strain I READING AND COMPREHENSION 1A body is in stress when forces are applied to it which cause its size and shape to change. In other words, stress causes distortion. *The intensity of stress depends on the size of the force and the cross-sectional area (c.s.a.) of the body which resists the force. “That ppd force Gia. of the body Distortion due to stress is called strain. “Different forces will distort bodies in diferent ways, 7A tensile force will lengthen a body. One subjected to a compressive force will contract. °If' body has a uniform c.., that is, if it has the same e.s.8. throughout its length, we calculate strain as change of length original length stress strain (@) Stress on bar x is greater than stress on bar y 800N 800N 100mm? 180mm? (©) A tensile force can cause distortion, 1,000:4 (2) For this ar of steel, strain is equal to 1% (© Fort ed, strain is equal to > riginattength 100mm ew eng 1000-4mm Souk Ge PHO64 English in Mechanical Engineering (@ Tensile forces and compressive forces have opposite effets on bodies. (©) Distortion causes strain, 1oMfost materials used in engineering are elastic. "™A material which bas the property of elasticity will return to its orginal size and shape when the forces producing strain are removed. ! "However, if these foros go beyond Treertamn limit, ealled the elastic Himit, an elastic material will not regain its ‘ginal dimensions, PIfwe take a bar of uniform es.2, ofan elastic material Tike mild steel, and apply gradually increasing tensile forces to it it will end. If we measure each extension produced by each increase in force, seen find that the bar’ increase in length is in proportion to the increase wr pvce.*#In other words, strain is proportional to stress. +A graph of stress ‘inst stain would therefore bea straight line lke that in Diagram 1 Another way of expressing this is Er sephe value ofthis constant is different for each clastic material. "71s called the Modulus of Elasticity. 2°1F we exceed the elastic limit, then strain is no Tonger proportional to stress and thete is permanent deformation. *! These findings illustrate Hooke’s law which states that within the elastic limit the strain produced is proportional to the stress producing it. (All engincering materials are elastic. (@) Mild stee is an elastic material i) Elastic materials cannot be in a state of stress. (Arild steel bar will vays extend in proportion to the forees which extend it (). Within the elastic limit, if we double the stess on a body we will double the strain produced, (The value ofthe Modulus of Elasticity varies according to the stress an elastic material is subjected to. () Mild steel has a uniform esa. Solutions plied force _ Esa. of the body (@) stress = 300. jie. stress on bar x = 820 Njmm? and stress on bar 100 ” 150 ‘stress on bar x is greater than sess on bar ‘Stress ant Strain 0 () A tensile force will lengthen a body. (7) fie. A tensile force will change the size and shape of a boss A tensile force can cause distortion. change of enath (9) (0) strain = ginal length For this bar of stel, original length = 1,000 mm. ‘new length = 1,000-4 mm, change of length = O-4 mm ' (@ A tensile force will lengthen a body. (7) fe. A tensile force will make a body longer. One subjected to a compressive force will contract. (8) jie. A compressive force will make 8 body shorter. Tensile forces and compressive forces have opposite effects on bodies. (© Stress causes distortion. (2) Distortion due to stress is called strain. (5) jie, stress causes distortion and this distortion is called strain tis Nor TRUE that distortion causes strain (0) Most materials used in engineering are elastic. (10) most # all Tris Not TRUE that all engineering materials arc clastic. (@ Iwetake a bar of uniform sa. of an elastic material like mild sesh, (3) jie. mild steel is an example of an elastic material Mild stel isan elastic material. (@) If we take a bar of uniform sa. of an elastic material lke mild sl, fad apply gradually increasing tensile forces to it it will extend, (13 jie. Ifa tensile force is applied to an clastic material, it will esteas. Ifa tensile force is applied to an elastic material, its size ans she change. Elastic materials CaN be in a state of stress i () If we measure each extension produced by each increase in Force, fod that the bar's inease in length isin proportion to the increas i force. (14) jie. The mild steel bar extends in proportion to the forces which extend bag Itwe exceed the clastic limit, then strain is no Jonger proportions! (> stress and there is permanent deformation. (20) jie, Armild steel bat will extend in proportion tothe forces which extend Tonga those forces do not exceed the elastic limit for mild steel a — pa aa) ae tc 4~ sguace m wecramicat Engineering {is sor TRUE that a mild steel bar will always extend in proportion to the forces which extend it {A Within the elastic limit, the strain produced is proportional tothe stress producing it 21) ‘2. Within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain, "thin che elale limit if we double the stress ona body we wil double the sirain produced. The value of this constant is different for each elastic material. (18) itis called the Modulus of Elasticity. (19) the Modulus of Elasticity is a constant ‘The value of the Modulus of Elasticity does Nor vary according to the stress as elastic material is subjected to 9 o we take tar of uniform cs.a. ofan elastic material like mild steel, (3) . ‘The bar hes a uniform e..a.y not the steel. Only @ shape can have a c.s.a. Mild steel can have many different shapes with diferent cs. tis Nor TRUE that mild steel has a uniform ¢.., EXERCISE A Rephrasing Rewrite the following, replacing the words in italics with an expression from the text which has a similar meaning, i. A tensile force of 2 KN applied to a bar of stel will cause its size and shape ‘0 change. 2. The shaft has a uniform e..a. 3. Copper is a material whick has the property of elasticity. Ap inerease in length of 0003 mm was found in a bar subjected to a force OUTSEN, ’ body which undergoes a tensile force will lengthen ‘6, Whiet compressive forces go beyond the elastic limit permanent distortion renal, iy will not then return to its original dimensions. terials regain their original shape and size. MISE B Contextual reference Jn semtence 1, “it refers to (2) stress () a body 2. Ta sentence 1, ts refers to (2) the force's () the body's 3. in serssace & ‘ene’ refers to (a) a body () a tensile force } i | | Siress and Strain 67 4. In sentence 9, ‘its’ refers to (2) the body's (b) a force's (@) the elastic Himit’s (b) am elastic material's 5, In sentence 12, is’ refers to 6, In sentence 16, ‘that’ refers to (a) the graph (@) the straight ine 7. In sentence 19, it refers to —_(@) a constant (©) an elastic material 8 Imsentence 2, it refers to. (a) the strain ©) the stress EXERCISE C Relationships berween statements ‘Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace or re- ‘order the words in the sentences where necessary. in-more general terms (2) for instance (13) for example (7) such as (13) whereas (7448) jn more general terms (15) in contrast (8) for this reason (16) wwe can conclude that (21) Il USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A Definitions Make a definition for each item in coluran (a) EXAMPLE ‘An organic material is a material which is based chemically on carbon * | stainless steel a nonferrous metal 2 formable metal ‘can be drawn out into wires contains iron | is based chemically on carbon ‘an abrasive substance | substance | can lengthen a body a ferrous metal ‘metal resists corrosion a compressive force | steel does not contain iron a ductile metal material | can shorter’ a body ‘an organic material | force can be shaped into forms tensile force can be used to wear away a softer material68 English in Mechanical Engineering EXERCISE B Ifsentencer From each ofthe dfnions in Exercise A, we can make an (sentence Look t this example definition: An organic material is @ ‘material which is based chemically on fsenence: Treo organist based chemical on abo, Sectence ike this consi of two pat joined by pant | ant 2 se amuteralisergni, | tis based chemialy on carbon ow make sitene like ti for each ofthe deinton you have writen in Bure A. EXERCISE C Predictions based on the properties of materials When we know what the properties of a material are we can predict how it will bebave under different conditions. To make preditions of this type, we ‘use an if-sentence with will in part 2, Look at this example 1 material is exible, it will bend easily. Now write similar predictions for materials which have the properties listed in column (@). Match each property in columa (a) with an appropriate expression from column (b). a b clasticty will not bend easily plasticity will resist abrasion, deformation and indentation toughness will resist wear Corrosion-rsistance | will regain its original dimensions after the forces Which have caused deformation are removed rigidity vill tend to fracture under impact loads wear-resistance will bend easly britdeness ‘wll not return to its original dimensions after the forces producing strain are removed hardness | will not fracture when indented or scratched Aexiility ‘will resist fracture when subjected to an impact load softness | will resist corrosion EXERCISE D Noun modification (iv) Here is another common way of modifying a noun in engineering. (@) « bracket with a pin joint (©) a pin jointed bracket | | Stress and Strain 69 Rewrite each of the following expressions as in example (b): ‘a metal tube with thin walls a roller with a flat bottom 4 polygon with six sides ‘2 cutting tool with multiple edges a follower with a knife edge a rivet with a copper face Describe each of te following objecs asin example (a) 4 foursied indentor 4 selitetipped cutting tool 1 wirejacketed hose 4 square threaded serew 4 round-headed rivet a stubsnsed tool EXERCISE E Prepositions Rewrite the following sentences filing in the spaces with a preposition from the list, You will have to use some of the prepositions more than once. away of between S from . in with into 1. The crank gear meshes . . .a second gear to which the winding drum is rigidly Gixed. 2. Two masses are suspended .... the metre stick at points X and Y. 3. A single point tool consists... tip made of high-speed steel and a plain ‘carbon steel shank welded to the tip. 4, The screw runs in a fixed nut incorporated ... the jack. 5. The worm is prevented ... axial movements by its bearings, 6. Whether the load extends or compresses the spring depends ... the type of balance. 7. The calculations necessary in designing gear wheels are based... the pitch circle diameter. 8. Vector a-b was converted . ..2 force of 60 N. 9. Fluid is applied to cutting tools to cool and lubricate them and to wash « chips and swart 10, Brake linings are often made . . . an asbestos compound. 11. We can distinguish ... high pressure laminates and low pressure laminates. 12, Vernier calipers are provided . a vernier scale to ensure accuracy ia ‘measurement, ra 3 a73273 SP — 3 3eee = = ede om te py |e | m0 um 13. A hammer with one end ball-shaped and the other end slightly domed, referred ... as a ball-pein hammer. 14, A single vector quantity can be resolved . .. any number of components in an infinite variety of ways. EXERCISE F Making inductions We have seen (Unit 4) that in mechanical engineering it is necessary to make inductions from observations. These observations are often written in the form of of when- sentences, Write down sentences 2,7, 8,11, 15, and 20 from the reading passage in your notebook. Using these sentences to help you, complete in your notebook the inductions which follow each of the observations below. 1. If. bar of irom is subjected to a force of 2 KN, it bends This shows that... 2, When a rod of mild steel has a compressive force of $ KN applied to it, it contracts by 0-889 mm. ‘This demonstrates that . 3, Ifa weight of 6 kg is attached to a wire of uniform ca, the wire extends by 0.05 mm, This shows that ... 4, When @ load of 30 KN is applied to a ste! ber, it lengthens by 0-250 mm, If the load is increased to 60 KN, the bar lengthens by 0-50 mm. ‘These findings show that 5, When the load of 60 KN is removed from the steel bar, it regains its original proportions. This demonstrates that 6. IF the load exceeds 60 KN, the bar does not return to its original size and shape when the load is removed. This shows that Stress and Strain 71 II INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A Inductions based on diagrams and tables In the Use of Language section we learned how to make inductions from observations. In engineering we also have to make inductions from infor. ‘mation contained in diagrams and tables. With the help of sentences 2,7, 8, 11, 15, and 20 which you have written in your notehook, make inductions from the following diagrams and tables VA win This graph shows that . oun 7 . a 20K 20kN 2. length of member PR off load = 330 cm length of member PR under load — 329-6 em ‘These figures demonstrate that . 3, length of member PQ off load — 600 cm Jength of member PQ under load = 601 em ‘These figures demonstrate that 4 ee applied force stress) fi 3 002 6 004 9 0-06, ‘These figures show that .12. English in Mechanical Engineering eaSsSsSS tensile test results for mil steel stress N/mm? extension mm = 1000 0.00066 2,000 000133 4,000 026s 6,000 -00400 12000 0-00795 12,100 0-09000 ‘These results demonstrate that EXERCISE B Stating laws Inductions which are based on many observations are called Jaws. In Unit 4 some of the inductions you made were the laws of friction. These laws are ‘written in column (b) opposite. Tables A and B contain resultsfromanumber Of simple experiments on friction using the apparatus illustrated, Using the {information contained in these results, write down and complete the observa tions in columa (a). Make sure that each observation you write matches the law of friction opposite it. apparatus lock Ass tonal masses ‘retion board results TABLEA "| nature of area of sliding result surfaces in surfaces in friction umber contact contact force mm N ' wood on wood 200 104 2 ‘wood on wood 100 lod 3 wood on glass 100 63 Suress and Strain 73 result reaction between number the surfaces N 4 981 5 1962 6 2943 observations 1. Results 4, § and 6 show that when one surface slides over another surface, thee isa force which must be overcome before. ‘movement can occur. 2. Results 4, $ and 6 show that if we ‘compare... with the force required to maintain... . we find that the former is... 3, Results... 3 show that the sliding friction force for wood on wood is... . than the 4, Results | and 2 show that if the + i halved, sliding friction force 5, Results .. . show that ifthe reaction between two surfaces in contact is doubled, the force and the force... ate also ‘Now combine each observation and law. EXAMPLE force required force required to cause to maintain movement movement N 32 64 96 laws Friction always opposes motion. Static friction is greater than sliding friction. Friction between two surfaces depends on the nature of the surfaces in contact. Sliding friction is independent of the area of surface in contact. Friction is directly proportional to the reaction between the surface in contact. "Results 4, 5 and 6 show that when one surface slides over another surface there is a force which must be overcome before movement can occur. This demonstrates that frition always opposes motion, Soh ee‘14 English in Mechanical Engineering IV GUIDED WRITING STAGE | Sentence building Joincach of the following groups of sentences to make eleven longer sentences. You are given some, but not all, of the connecting words which you will need. You may add, omit or change words where you think it is necessary, and you should provide appropriate punctuation. 1. THus From 0 to P the specimen extends. ‘This is in proportion to the force applied to the material. ‘This illustrates Hooke’s law. 2. The material reaches its elastic limit, This happens soon after point P. ‘The elastic limit is marked on the graph. ‘The elastic limit is marked a8 point E. 3. After the yield point there is a rapid extension, This is an extension of the specimen. This rapid extension occurs with each increase in load. This extension continues until point U is reached, 4. wien ‘The specimen will regain its original length up to ‘The forces are removed, ‘The forces cause tension. 5. THAT ‘This is what waisting means. ‘The cross-sectional area of the specimen narrows. ‘This happens at some point in the specimen’s length 6. wituour U represents the maximum load the specimen can undergo. Up to this load there is no change in the specimen's cross-seet ynal area, 7. AFTER ‘The point of maximum load is reached. ‘The specimen undergoes ‘waisting 8 However If the elastic limit is exceeded. ‘The specimen will not regain its original length, 9. ALTHOUGH/BECAUSE OF ‘The stress continues to increase ‘Stress and Strain 75 Note the deerease in cross-sectional area, The load falls. 10. waew ‘The specimen lengthens further. It lengthens until point F. ‘The specimen finally fractures, 11. For ‘ALY the specimen increases in length. . Y¥ is the yield point. This is a sudden increase. ‘There is very litte corresponding increase in Force STAGE 2 Paragraph building Now rearrange the sentences you have written into a number of logically. ordered paragraphs, Begin your first paragraph with sentences 1 and 2, STAGE3 Using diagrams to illustrate the paragraphs ‘The passage you have written is intended to accompany a graph, Here is an introduction to the passage followed by the graph itself: ‘One of the most important mechanical test isthe tensile test to destruction in which a specimen is subjected to increasing tensile forces until it fractures. A specially prepared test-piece with a simple cross-sectional area, for example 100 mm?, is normally used in this test. For a mild steel specimen ‘graph of load against extension for a tensile test may have the following. appearance: toad ‘Although six points are marked on the graph they have not been labelled. Label them Y, F, O, P, U, E using the information from the paragraphs you have written, Here are three sketches to illustrate the description. Label the sketches “Diagram 1", ‘Diagram 2° and ‘Diagram 3°. Refer to your description and16 English in Mechanical Engineering decide where the illustrations should be inserted into the text. Make a refer- fence to each illustration at an appropriate place ia the description, e.8 See Diagram 1 AAs shown in Diagram 1 As in Diagram 1 o=—B D3 Now rewrite the entire passage, including the graph and the illustrations and any other changes you have made. Give the completed description a suitable tide, V FREE READING Read the following passage in your own time. If there are any words you do not know, look them up in your dictionary. Try tofind additional examples fof the points you have studied in this and other units. FACTOR OF SAFETY Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a bracket to @ suspension bridge, must accurately calculate the stresses they expect the structure Lo bear, They must also have a good understanding of the propertis of raterials, In the past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of knowledge of the properties of materials has led to disaster. For example, the fist Tay Bridge in Scotland collapsed, kiling 77 people, because no allowance was made for wind pressure. Even with today's testing equipment errors fare sometimes made in calculating the safe loads a structure ean carry. For instance, a number of box girder bridges have collapsed during con- struction. "To safeguard structures, designers normally work within @ factor of safety so that materials are kept within their permitted working stress Working stress is the greatest stress to which a part of a structure is ever subjected. Its calculated by dividing the ultimate strength ofthe material by a factor of safety. The former is the stress at which the material fractures. The latter is the product of four main factors The frst factor isthe ratio of ultimate strength to the elastic limit of the Stress and Streis 7 ‘material, The elastic limit can be obtained from a tensile test. Normnaily this ratio is approximately 2. ‘Fae second factor depends on the nature of the stress invoived. For cxaraple, a body may be exposed to one constant stress, or to variable ‘cess, or even to compound stress, that is, where several stresses act on it at the same time. A constant stress of one kind is given # factor of # Variable stress is more complex. Under frequently repeated siresses a cei ‘will fracture at a much Jower point than its ultimate strengci. Meta! Fracture caused by such stresses is commonly called ‘metal fatigué’. For simply repeated stresses ranging from zero to @ maximure and back t 2010, a factor of 2s allowed, For alternating stress, which not oniy varies in size but also in direction, for example from tensile to compressive, 3 actor of 3 is necessary. “The third factor concerns the application of the load. A factor of 1 may be allowed for a gradually applied load, 2 for a suddenly applied load aut greater Factors for shock loads. The last factor is the most dificult to determine. Sometimes itis cal the factor of ignorance’. If all the conditions of service are known, acto: can be low. Where the conditions of service are severe, where there isa danger of an overload or where the materials are imperfect, @ factor as high as 10 may be necessary. For example, bridge builders may allow for freak winds and in earthquake zones special allowances must be made ‘when designing tall buildings. "The following example illustrates how the factor of safety for a forged sicel connecting rod in a diesel engine is calculated. The first factor is 2. ‘As the red is subjected alternately to both compressive and tensile stresses, the secosd factor is 3. When the fuel mixture ignites it imposes a suddenly fapplied 'vad on the rod, hence the third factor is 2. The conditions of Service o° an engine are well-known, therefore the last factor is 14. The Factor of safety is thus 2<3%2 I, which equals 18. ‘Secau-s of weight restrictions, aireraft are manufactured to much lower factors :f safety ~ between 1-1 and 1-75. These extremely low facto sire, aeting material and production specifications and highly securate {sign calculations. wadvanced design work, especially in designing skyscraper block fo: ings up to the plastic state of metals are now used. [Link] cesisn ‘wen there can be no ‘factor of ignorance’ and extreme accuracy 18 cal: ‘cul: sing the stresses on the structure is essential i ape Sa 20 ee r7 Ideal and Practical Machines I. READING AND COMPREHENSION nena ee NEES {A machin is any device which allows work to be done more conveniently. 2A machine has an input member to which an effort i applied and a outpa rember which moves oad, "The advantage of a machine is thatthe effort "pplied can be very much smaller than the load tobe overcome. *The measure ofthis advantage isthe ratio of loa to effort and is known asthe Mechanical Advantage (M.A.) Load aad ‘Effort “tn a practical machine eneay is lost because of fiction. “The M.A. of, ‘practical machine changes asthe lad it carries changes because the percent. 1g¢ of effort required to overcome fiction depends on the sizeof the load, ‘For very small leads a lage percentage ofthe effort is needed to work ‘against fiction whereas with larger loads the fraction is les. *A graph of load against effort as the shape shown in Diagram 1: attort “Inthe above diagram, a is the effort required to overcome friction. (3) The M.A. ofa practical machine isa constant. (© A practical machine requires more effort to move smal nad than large loads. (0) A machine can it a large load with a smaller efor. Heal and Practical Machines 79 (@ This is @ graph of load against effort for a practical machine. cotton *°To obtain a high M.A. a machine must be designed so that the distance ‘moved by the effort is much greater than the output displacement ofthe load. "The ratio of the two distances is termed the Velocity Ratio (V.R.) that is, distance moved by the effort distance moved by the load !°The V.R. of a machine depends on its design and has a fixed value for each machine. "In other words itis a constant. We can think of the effort which is applied to the machine as the work input. **The work done by the machine on the load is the work output, "The efficiency of the machine is then the ratio of the work output to the work input, that is: VR = work output Eficien © work input In practice the work output is always less than the work input because ‘some energy is lost inside the machine in overcoming friction, '*Thus the efficiency of a practical machine can never reach 100%. **Eficiency tends to increase sharply with load, then fatten out as it reaches a limiting value {as shown in Diagram 2: (©) The V.R. of a machine varies according to the work output. (D) The efficiency of a practical machine is not a constant. (The work input of a practical machine is greater than its work output (8) Efficiency is proportional to load, *°Mathematicallyitcan be shown that Eiicieney = MA80 English in Mechanical Engineering 2 An ideal machine has no friction, *Since an ideal machine is frictionless, its MA. would not vary with the load but would be a constant. 7A graph itload against effort would have the shape showa in Diagram 3: 4 it were possible to build an ideal machine, there would be no loss of energy within the machine. 3°Thus we could say that ‘work input = work output ie LxDy where E = effort, Dp = distance moved by effort, L = load, and Dy, = dist~ moe moved by load. *An ideal machine would have an efficiency of 1 or 100%, 27As efficiency is equal to the ratio M.A,/V.R. the M.A. of an ideal ‘machine must equal its V.R. (A machine with an M.A. of 5 and a V.R. of 5 isan ideal machine. {For an ideal machine, efficiency would increase as the load increased (8) ‘The work done by @ machine on a load is equal to the load times the distance moved by the load. () Frictionless machines exist. Solutions (@) ‘The M.A. of a practical machine changes as the load it carries changes o = The M.A. of a practical machine varies with the load ‘The M.A. of a practical machine is NOT a constant. () For very small loads a large percentage of the effort is needed to work against friction whereas with larger loads the fraction isles. (7) jie. A practical machine requires a larger percentage of the effort to move small loads than to move large loads. Iris Nor TRUE that a practical machine requires more effort to move small loads than large loads. (6) ‘The advantage of a machine is thatthe effort applied can be very much smaller than the load to be overcome. (3) jie. The advantage of a machine is that it can overcome a load with a very ‘much smaller effort. eg. A machine can lift a large load with a smaller effort @ @ w 0 Ideal and Practical Machines 81 ‘A graph of load against effort has the shape shown in Diagram 1: (6). ttort inthe graph in the question, the line passes through the origin. ‘There is no effort required to overcome friction “The graph in the question i a graph of an ideal machine. ‘The graph shown is NOT a graph of load against effort for a practical machine. ‘The V.R. of a machine depends on its design and has a fixed value for cach machine. (12) In other words itis a constant. (13) “The V.R. of a machine does not vary. tis Not TRUE that the V.R. of a machine varies according to the work ‘output Efficiency tends to increase sharply with load, then flatten out as it reaches a limiting value as shown in Diagram 2. (19) Efficiency depends on the load. The eficiency of a practical machine isnot @ constant. In practice the work output is always less than the work input because some energy is lost inside the machine. (17) For practical machines, the work input is greater than the work output. ‘The work input of a practical machine is greater than its work output. ficiency tends to increase sharply with load, then flatten out as it reaches a limiting value as shown in Diagram 2: (19) sticeney Toad If efficiency were proportional to load, the graph would be a steaight line, Efficiency is NOT proportional to load. ‘Mathematically t can be shown that Eticeney = MA coy om oe TS “ap lee82 English in Mechanical Engineering = Lor 100% ‘but An ideal machine would have an efficiency of 1 or 100%, (26) A machine with an M.A. ofS and a V.R. of 5 isan idea! machine (@_ An ideal machine would have an efficiency of 1 or 100%, (26) te. For any load the efficiency of the machine would be 100% Foran ideal machine, efciency would Nor increase asthe load increased. “the efficiency of the machine = (6) work input = work output LxD, effort, Dy = distance moved by effort, L =load, and Jistance moved by load. (25) Le, Work output is equal to load times distance moved by load. ‘but The work done by the machine on the load is the work output. (15) The work done by a machine onaload is equal to the load times the distance moved by the load. (© If it were possible to build an ideal machine. . (24) it t were possible (here) = itis not possible ie. It is not possible to build an ideal (frictionless) machine. Frictionless machines do xor exist. EXERCISE A Rephrasing Rewrite the following, replacing the words in italics with an expression from the text which has a similar meaning 1, The ratio of load to effort is termed the Mechanical Advantage. 2. Part of the effort is needed to overcome static and sliding friction in the machine 3. A large fraction of the effort is used to overcome fection. 4. The output displacement of the load is less than the input displacement of the effort. 5. The Velocity Ratio of a machine isa constant 6. The effort which is applied to the machine is greater than the work output. 7. The work output of the machine isthe product of the load and the distance moved by the load. 8. An ideal machine is frictionless. 9. The efficiency of a practical machine varies with the load. EXERCISE B Contextual reference 1. In sentence 2, ‘which’ in the phrase “to which’ refers to (2) a machine (b) an input member (©) an output member Teal and Practical Machines §3 2. In sentence 6, it? refers to (2) the Mechanical Advantage (6) the load (©) a practical machine (a) the Velocity Ratio's (b) a machine's (©) a value's () the Velocity Ratio (©) each machine (© machine (@) a practical machine (b) am ideal machine (©) a load (@) efficiency (a) an ideal machine's (©) effciency’s (©) a machine's 3. In sentence 12, ‘its refers to 4. In sentence 13, ‘it refers to 5. In sentence 19, it’ refers to 6. In sentence 27, EXERCISE C Relationships between statements Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace or re- ‘order the words in the sentences where necessary. since (6) ‘because (22) for instance (7) consequently (23) om the other hand (7) for this reason (25) since (17) therefore (26) hence (18) therefore (27) Il_ USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A Predictions based on laws, generalizations and proven facts In Unit 6 we practised ‘ifsentences' which were predictions. These predictions were based on the properties of different materials and the sentences contained will in column (b). We can also make predictions based on laws, generalizations and proven facts. EXAMPLE (based on the law ‘Friction always opposes motion’) We push a table across a rough floor. The motion will be opposed by friction. = If we push a table across @ rough floor, the motion will be opposed by friction, [Now write in your notebook predictions based on the sentences in' column (a). The sketches wll help you to complete column (6) of each prediction.84 English in Mechanical Engineering Tr We subject a seel bar to tensile fores. ' . 2, We place a roller ona smooth incined plane nN 3. We apply aa effort at E. 4, We subject a strut to compressive Fores. Se 5, We move the effort by 1 metre 6. We attach a load to a spring balance. 1. We move the effort by $0 centimetres. 8. We move the effort by 1:80 metres. “The strut. ‘The load « ‘The spring ‘The load ‘The load ‘deal and Practical Machines 8S [Now use the facts given in the table to write predictions based on the follow- ing supposition: COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION surfaces bronze on bronze dry bronze on bronze lubri steel on brass dry steel on cast iron dry Teather on cast iron plastic on cast iron rubber on asphalt rubber on concrete 9, We lubricate two bronze moving. surfaces in contact 10, We replace the brass bushes ia which a steel shaft is running with cast iron bushes. 11. We compare braking distances for car on asphalt roads and on concrete roads. 12, We replace a leather belt driving a cast iron pulley with a plastic bet ated 005 Friction Friction between shaft and bushes Ga We will find “The plastic belt will... under heavy loads. EXERCISE B Predictions based on unlikely suppositions ‘Another kind of i'sentence is used to make predictions where the suppos tion is unlikely to happen. We build an ideal machine it will have no energy loss due to frit tion wwe built an ideal machine, it would have no energy Loss due to itction Now make predictions based on the following suppositions. First you wil have to match each supposition to the ‘Remember to change the verb in the su will in column (b) to would ‘appropriate sentence in columt (6). ;pposition to the past tense form, and poo eedn da ado ty pl Sa agus we sueenanicat Engineering 2 b 1. We compare work output to work | It wil be a constant input for an ideal machine. 2. We make @ perfectly smooth 1e willbe a straight line passing surface. tough the origin, 3. We measure the efficiency of an | We wil find they ae equal ileal machioe. 4 We draw a graph of load against | It will be frictionless. ‘effort for an ideal machine, 5. We prepare two perfectly smooth | We will ind itis 100%. surfaces, 5, We caleulate the M.A. of an ideal | We will find they are equal. machine ‘We compare the M.A. and the Te will require an effort of 20 N It requires an effort of 10 N to ‘They will have a zero coefficient raise @ load of 100 N with an ideal | of friction with each other. machine V.R. of an ideal machine. | to raise a load of 200 N, EXERCISE C toughen, harden, soften, te Rewrite the following sentences using the verbs from thelist. roughen lengthen sharpen harden loosen strengthen soften censure shorten enlarge weaken Tessen tighten lighten widen Drills can be made sharp with grinding stone. ~ Drrils can be sharpened with grinding stone. |. The 5 ke mass was removed to make the load on the test piece lighter. 2. A reamer can be used to make drill hols larger. 3. Repeatedly flexing copper wire makes it hard and thus makes it easy to break 4. A torque wrench should be used to make the bolts tight on a eylinder head. A tensile force will make a body longer. ‘Wing nuts can be made loose easily by hand. A compressive force will tend to make a body shorter. The surface should first be made rough using a coerse file. Solvents can be used to make coatings soft, 10. The gap between tailstock and spindle nose can be made wider by rotating the hand wheel deal and Practical Machines 87 11. Friction between two rough planks can be made less if they are planed 12. Piston rings make sure that the piston makes a gastight seal with the ojlnder wall. 13, Extra struts will make the framework stronger. 14, Dirty materials may make reinforced concrete weak. IT INFORMATION TRANSFER aa EXERCISE A Design specifications isto, have t0, must. When we write about design specifications we often use is ro, EXAMPLES ‘The pulley wheel isto have a diameter of 120 mm. The pulley-wheel is 10 be mounted on a power transmission shaft, ‘When we want to stress the importance of a design specification we use shave to oF must EXAMPLES ‘The width of the shoulder on the transmission shaft has to be not less than 97mm, ‘The width of the shoulder must not exceed 10-3 mm. Study these design specifications for a pulley wheel and the method of ‘mounting it to a power transmission shaft: yy Seen tr 10mm 0.30% tengo 25mm Imaterils diecast bt20mm|_ pulley Saminurs soy soe T - frish: a8 east 20mm 4 tolerance: 050mm ed {nail dimensions key tosh etcept whee other- wise sated 1 Now write down and complete the following sentences using the information contained in the diagram:88 English in Mechanical Engineering 1. The pulley wheel... die cast aluminium alloy. 2. The pulley wheel «.. wide 3, The end of the shaft... M20... of 25 maa. The distance through the boss of the wheel ... greater... mm. 5, The diameter of the bore .. . exceed... mm. EXERCISE B Defign specifications (continued) Study these design specifications for a compression spring: teoncoutsidedia. [[Link] 32cm ie ‘toktegiengh ts whe tO ma Now write nine sentences about the spring using is to or have fojmust where appropriate. EXAMPLE, “At working length 2 the spring has to support a load of 42 ke. IV GUIDED WRITING eee ent ree er STAGE | Sentence and paragraph building Join the following groups of seatences to make eleven longer sentences de- Senibing a serewsjack. You may add or omit words where you think itis necessary, and you should provide appropriate punctuation and paragraph divisions 1. The wheel and axle, the lever, and the inclined plane are simple machines. ‘Man has used siuuple machines For over 2,000 years. Hea! and Practical Machines $9 2. Most machines are based on simple machines. ‘The serew-jack is based on the inclined plane. 3, Cuta triangle out of paper. ‘The triangle is right-angled. ‘The purpose of the triangle is to represent an inclined plane. 44, Wrap the paper triangle round a cylinder. “The inclined edge of the paper makes a spiraling line ound the eylindes. 5. The spiralling line becomes the thread of the screw. “The spiraling ine is known as a helix. 6, A serew forms the main component of the serew-jack, ‘The serew has @ square thread, 47, Squate threads are used for power transmission. Square threads offers les frictional resistance than vee-threads. 8. The sorew is fee fo rotate “The screw rotates in a fixed nut “The fixed nut forms part of the body of the jack. 9. The sew cay This ale pei oe appled tothe fort ba. 10. The screw makes a fll revolution, ‘The load is raised by a distance. ‘The load is lowered by a distance. ‘The distance is equal to the pitch ofthe screw. 11, The pitch is a distance, ‘The distance is between the same points. ‘The points are on adjacent threads STAGE 2 Using diagrams to illstrate the paragraphs Study these two drawings, then make a thicd drawing to show how @ helix is formed from a triangle and a cylinder: Use the following drawing to show what the pitch of screw is cen9% English in Mechanical Engineering Refer to your description, and decide where the illustrations should be inserted. Make a reference to each of the four illustrations at an appropriate place in the description. Rewrite the description and include the illustrations and any other changes you have made, V FREE READING Read the following passages in your own time. If there are any words you do not know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional ‘examples of the points you have studied in this and other unit, CRANES ‘We can define a crane as a machine-which lifts heavy loads and displaces ‘them horizontally. In other words, a crane can lift loads and move them to. different positon in the horizontal plane, unlike a hoist which is only lifting device. We can divide cranes into two main classes, These are jb cranes and overhead travelling cranes. Jib cranes have jib, or arm, from Which the load is suspended. The jib allows the load to be raised or lowered ‘and then deposited at any point within the radius of the jb. Movement of the jib in the vertical plane is known as derricking. The rotation ofthe jib in the horizontal plane is called slewing, ‘The commonest kind of non-revolving crane is the overhead travelling crane. Such a crane is illustrated in the diagram below. It consists of a horizontal section called a load girder, made up of a mumber of steel ‘beams, resting on end carriages which run on overhead gantry rails. A trolley to carry the crane hook in turn runs on top of the load girder. ‘Cranes like this are found in workshops where heavy machinery has to be transported from place to place on the shop floor for different stages in its ‘manufacture, The three movements of the overhead travelling crane are as follows, {& can lift a load to the height of the load girder, it can traverse the width of the shop oor with it, and it can move the load along the length of the ‘workshop. As the body of the crane is mounted overhead it does not affect Weal and Practical Machines 91 work onthe shop floor as it moves. Canes witha span of 40 metres and a ‘maximum lifting capacity of 400 tonnes are made. For use outside a factory, for example in timber yards, a similar crane, termed a goliath crane, is used. The load girder of a goliath erane is supported not on gantry rails but om legs running on rails mounted on the ground. ‘There are many varieties of cranes for special purposes. They may be fixed, portable or mobile. A portable crane must be transported, whereas a mobile crane ie either self-propelled or mounted on a tuck chassis or railway wagon, Crancs use diferent forms of power, for example elettric power, disel power, hydraulic power, steam poner and even hand power ae used depending on the type of crane and its application. ‘An example of a crane With a particular application is the shipyard crane. This is heavy, ied crane with a slewing cantilever mounted on lated tower which is firmly anchored in concrete. In addition to the main load teolley the crane may be fitted with a small jib erane running on the cantilever. Such eranes are necessary in shipbuilding because when 2 ship is beng fited out, heavy machinery, such asthe engines, has to be lowered into the vestel. These eranes must be eapable of placing the loads inside the ship with great accuracy. For this reason some form of fine clectrical contol is normally employed. "Another example isthe dockside crane whichis used to unload and load ships. Is usually mounted on rails which run th length ofthe quay and is often fited with a grab instead of a hook. A grab has two jaws which open and close ikea clamshell tis designed to handle bulk cargoes like jron ore and gravel. One variety of dockside crane, known as a kangaroo crane, feds bulk cargoes directly into a hopper atts base. From the hopper the cargo is weighed and discharged into trucks and railway wagons.8 The Four-Stroke Petrol Engine 1 READING PART I The carburettor Complete the labelling of the diagram using the words in italics in the passage. Write down the labels in your notebook against the letters a-j + ‘Phe carburetor is a device which provides the engine with an air and petrol mixture in the correct proportions forall running conditions. *This simplified diagram shows how it operates. ®Petrol enters the float chamber via the feed pipe and the fuel inlet, *When the chamber is filled to the correct level, the float and necdle-valve rise, cutting off the fuel supply. *When the piston ‘moves down the cylinder it reduces the pressure within the cylinder. The pressure of the atmosphere then pushes air in through the carburettor where it mixes with a fine jer of petral from the float chamber to produce finely ivided fuel droplets, "The quantity of this aromized fuel which enters the cylinder is controlled by a throule vale. *In a motor car the throttle valve is ‘opened and closed by operating the accelerator pedal ‘The Four-Siroke Petrot Engine 73 PART? The valves Complete the passage using the information inthe diagram, Write down + fist ofthe missing words against their sentence numbers. “The function of the valves is to open and close at the correct time when the cagine is running so that fuel can enter the cylinder and the exhavst gases crepe. !2The valve illustrated is an inlet valve. * Xt is fitted into the Tee from the ». enters the... through it. The... is ground so that it fits the» exactly, forming @ gas-tight seal, “*The . slides through estich is sleeve of bronze tapered at one end so that it ean be driven tightly into the eylinder-head. re inlet valve is Kept closed by means of a... '¢The ends of the spring are beld between two... '70ne collar is st in the eyinder head nile the upper collar is attached to the valve stem. vette valve is opened atthe right moment by means ofa... mounlcd ol a This shaft is driven by the engine crankshaft, 7°As the eam tush {pushes up the. which in turn raises one end ofthe. *\The other °During the tiny interval of time required for the flame to establish itself, the piston has reached its highest position in the .... 2! The gas generated by the burning fuel now expands rapidly, driving the piston down the eylinder, 3*This downward push is converted into a rotary movement by the connecting rod and A .... contained within the eylinder wall helps to conduct away the heat ‘generated during this burning and thus keeps the engine cool. ‘exhaust stroke **The exhaust valve opens but the inlet valve remains shut. The piston moves up the eylinder, pushing the exhaust eas out through the - **With the completion of the exhaust stroke the eycle begins agai sparking pg iscket — ‘The Four-Stroke Petrol Engine 95 IL USE OF LANGUAGE EXERCISE A Cause and effect ‘We can sometimes use an ~ing clause to link a ‘cause’ and an ‘effect. EXAMPLES ‘cause: The piston travels wp the cylinder effect: The piston compresses the mixture D The piston travels up the cylinder, compressing the mixture ‘cause: The gas expands suddenly effect: This drives the piston down the cylinder. ‘The gas expands suddenly, driving the piston down the cylinder. Now join the following cause and effect pairs in the same way: cause effect 1. The piston moves down the ‘This creates a partial vacuum, exlinder This allows the fuel mixture to center the cylinder. It pushes the valve down. ‘The valve shuts off the fuel supply. 2, The inlet valve opens. 3. The rocker tilts to the right. 4. A poppet valve drops after two milliseconds. 5, The worm-gear revolves once. This turns the wheel a distance equal to the lead of the worm. applied tothe bar. It stretches the bar by 0-09 mm. It raises the load by 30 mm. 6. Atensile force: 7. The screw revolves once. 8. The drum unwinds 100 metres It lowers the pit-cage at a in 20 seconds. velocity of 5 mis. 9, The brakes are applied when the They reduce its speed to 20 km/h. car has a speed of 54 kmh, 10, As the governor spins, the weights pull outwards. ‘This raises the shaft collar and reduces the fuel supply to the engine. EXERCISE B Problems and solutions Mleiflllte Look at this example: problem solution : Raise the load. Applya forceat E greater than ION, ql96 English in Mechanical Engineering |We can join the ‘problem’ and the ‘solution’ in various ways. (@) To raise the load, apply a force at E greater than 10 N. @) We raise the load by applying a fore at E greater than 10 N (© The load is raised by applying a force at E greater than 10 N. Now write down a Solution for each of the following problems. Then com- bine problem and solution in a sentence, using pattern (a), (b) or () 1 Oe Rotate gear B clockwise. 2 C Lower the load. Wightchand row Open the throttle. Raise the bucket in the wel. Reverse the direction of rotation of pulley B 6 hanes ‘Apply the brake. a Rotate gear Bat 40 eet 40 rev/min. Y The FoursStroke Petrol Engine 97 8. CEQ) Rotate gear B clockwise. ® Raise load L. Rotate gear Bat 50 rev/min anti-clockwise. 1o04eeth SOreeth EXERCISE C -tight, proof, resistant ‘The ending -tight is used to describe joints, and the endings -proof and resistant Geseribe materials which have certain properties EXAMPLES ‘an air-tight connection ‘connection which air cannot pass through 1 heat-resistant material = a material which isnot damaged by heat -proof bas two meanings: 1a moisture-proof coating 8 coating which moisture cannot pass through fan acid-proof cement = a cement which isnot damaged by acid [Now describe the following materials end joints: fa gastight seal 1 sound:proof engine cladding, ‘an oil-proof cement 8 rust-proof surface 8 water-resistant grease ‘ shock-proof mounting a light-proof coating 4 corrosion-resistant steel ‘water-tight connection ‘a weather-proof surface98 English in Mechanical Engineering I INFORMATION TRANSFER EXERCISE A Describing the shapes of objects wo fae | EY read wcoon mma | ge] cin fet & a Oo oS TAN viene ‘viangutae => O cron | ore saa ‘When an object has a regular geometric shape we can use one ofthe adjectives from the table above to describe it EXAMPLE 4 square faceplate ‘When the object has no recognized geometric shape but does resemble a well-known object or a letter of the alphabet, it may be described in one of the following ways 8 mushroomshaped valve a. valve shaped like a mushroom The Four-Stroke Petrol Engine 99 2 Vata [YJ Now describe the shapes of the following objects as completely as possible. 1. piston ° i 2, slot for a turbine blade A Wee Asivethead Gp 4. side plate °. S otoeme (85) 6 ot ©) 7. Wankel engine piston 8. pulley belt ~ cross-section Wy 9. furnace combustion chamber eS 10. spray from a fuel injection nozzle y 11, groove in the block ™] 12, face plate100 English in Mechanical Engineering 15. the point ofthe lathe centre > 14, cross-section of a wooden beam 15, cross-section of a stee! beam I 16, crosssection ofa ses beams IV GUIDED WRITING Soe eee STAGE | Sentence and paragraph building Write 0 description of pistons based on the following notes. Combine the Sentences in any way you wish, adding or omitting material where you think itis necessary, You should divide your description into several paragraphs. Pistons are eylindrical Pistons are cup-shaped. Pistons are east from steel or aluminium alloy. Aluminium conducts heat well “This heips the pistons to cool quickly. "The upper end of the piston is called the crown, ‘The upper end is closed ‘The walls of the piston are known as the skit. ‘These are machined to fit the cylinder closely. ‘The crown forms the lower part of the combustion chamber. It is normally Rat Itcan be domed. It can be dished. ‘The piston walls are grooved. ‘There are several grooves near the top. There is one groove near the bottom. ‘The grooves are for piston rings. Piston rings are cicles of grey cast iron. “The rings have a small gap in them. ‘The rings have a larger diameter than the cylinder when they areunstressed, ‘When they are stressed they make a tight fit with the cylinder alls. ‘The rings have to functions. The Four-Stroke Petrol Eayine 101 ‘The top rings keep gas from escaping from the combustion chamber. ‘The bottom ring is called the oik-control ring. ‘The bottom ring Keeps the flow of oil to the minimum necessary The oil lubricates the rings and the pistons. The bottom ring clears surplus oil from the cylinder walls, ‘A hole through the piston holds the gudgeon pin. "The gudgeon pin connects the piston and the connecting rod. ‘The gudgeon pin should be of the floating type ‘The gudgeon pin should be hollow. ‘The piston must be well designed. ‘The piston is subjected to compressive stress ‘The piston must withstand repeated impact loads. ‘The piston must withstand heat. ‘The piston must move up and down at an average speed of 13 m/s in automobile engines. STAGE 2 Using diagrams to illustrate the passage Copy the following diagram into your notebook, label it and use it to iMlus- trate your description. O° V_ FREE READING Read the following passage in your own time, If there are any words you don’t know, look them up in your dictionary. Try to find additional exams of the points you have studied in this and other units. THE WANKEL ENGINE “The Wankel engine is a form of heat engine which has a rotary plstex. In other words, instead of going up and down the Wankel piston toiates in the eyinder. Both cylinder and piston are quite different in shape from those of conventional engines, The Wankel piston is triangular wich cu ‘ides and the eylinder is roughly oval in shape. The piston has an inn bore which is linked through an eocentric gea tothe output shaft. The © tend of the bore is toothed and engages with a stationary gear fixed ‘hlinder end. This arrangement ensures that the piston follows an elliptic a pe an ao oo 1 —n102 English in Mechanical Engineering path round the cylinder so thatthe apexes of the piston, which carry gas- tight seals, are always in contact with the inside surface of the cylinder. The piston thus forms three crescent-shaped spaces between itself and the cylinder wall, which vary in size asthe piston rotates. Fuel enters the ‘vlinder through the inlet port when one of these spaces is increasing in size, The fuel trapped in this setion is then compressed by the turning piston anc ignited by the sparking plug. The expanding gases subject the piston to a twisting moment which makes the piston revolve further until the exhaust gases escape through the exhaust port. A fresh charge is then induced into the cylinder. Meanwhile the same process is being repeated in the other two spaces between the piston and the cylinder. ‘The Wankel engine has many advantages over the reciprocating piston engine. Fewer moving parts are necessary because it produces a rotary ‘movement without using a connectingrod and a crankshaft. Because ofthis rotary movement it has no vibration, In addition it has no valves, itis smaller and lighter than conventional engines of the same power, and it runs economically on diesel and several other fuels, QUESTIONS ON FREE READING PASSAGES UNIT | Corrasion 1. What is corrosion? 2. How does corrosion make a structure more expensive? 3. How do stainless stels resist corrosion? 4. Why is Monel metal used for marine engine parts? 5, What are cupronickels and what special properties do they have? 6. What is electrolytic corrosion caused by? 7. How can corrosion be controlled” UNIT 2 Scales and Graphs 1 What is a vector used for? 2. How can we describe a scalar quantity? In what way isa thermometer a seale? Name two uses of scales What is a slide-rule and what is it used for? [Name two ways in which a relationship between two variables can be shown, Describe the advantages of @ graph, . Give one difference between a graph and a nomograph. UNIT 3 Gravity What kind of force is gravity? What is weight? When does weightlessness occur? Why won't norfhal pens write in weightless conditions? Why do people weigh less on the moon’? ‘What error do we make in assuming that gravity always exerts a force of 981 N on a body for every kilogramme ofits mass? UNIT 4 Lubrication 1. Explain how a serew-jack depends on friction 2 Why si important that frition i igh bebe a belt and pulley What are the disadvantages of friction’ Why do two polished steel surfaces weld together only at a few points? Why is static friction between stel surfaces greater than sliding friction? How does oil reduce friction? Why cannot power loss be eliminated by lubri ‘What factors influence the choice of a lubricant?104 English in Mechanical Engineering UNIT 5 Beams ‘What effect does a load have on a horizontal beam? What kind of stress stretches 2 material? rahe beam shown in Diagram 1 were two metres longer, what effect ‘would this have on the bending moments? Why is it not necessary to ave a Jot of stel in the web of a beam? How is a castellaed girder made? ‘What advantage does a castellated girder have over a normal bear? “Why is the depth of a beam important? UNIT 6 Factor of safety 1. What is working stess? 2. How is the elastic imit of a material calculated? J In caleatating the second factor, what kind of stress equitesthe smallest factor of safety? 4. What causes metal fatigue? § Deseribe alternating stress and give an example of a common piece of ‘machinery which is subjected t0 it 6, When estimating the “actor of ignorance’ what must the engineer consider? +, Why does the third factor have a value of 2 for the connecting rod? §. Why are aircraft manufactured to low factors of safety? UNIT 7 Cranes 1. What is the difference between a hoist and a crane? ‘What are jib cranes? What ave the two horizontal movements of an overhead traveling 4. What isa goliath crane? 5. Why do shipyard cranes require fine electrical control for raising and lowering the crane hook? 6. Describe the operation of a kangaroo crane, 7, When is & grab used instead of a hook? 8, Explain the difference between a mobile and a portable crane. UNIT 8 The Wankel engine 1. How isthe output shaft connected tothe piston? 2, How are the combustion chambers formed? 3. What happens in a Wankel engine when the fuel mixture is ignited? 4. Why does a Wankel engine not vibrate? §. Write comparison ofthe Wankel engine and the conventional interoal- combustion engine in not more than 100 words.