JONELA IONITIU INTRODUCTORY NOTES ae OS ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION aIONELA IONITIU INTRODUCTORY NOTES ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION consania-2005Contents Foreword, INTRODUCTION HOUSES OF TRIBAL SOCIETIES Ill HOUSES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. IV HOUSES OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE... ~ \V, FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE 19TH CENTURY ee VI. 19TH-CENTURY HOUSING. ates Vil, 20TH-CENTURY HOUSING. ' 15 Vill HOUSES OF THE FAR EAST vo 16 ‘The Bauhaus : 7 ‘The Cathedral. 19 Glossary ae) “Topics for discussion. vessel ‘Complete with the most appropriate word for each space : al Reorruit the flowing sstnce fet hey ran fe sae ro BD ‘Supply the right verbal form . 23 Building Construction. |. INTRODUCTION. JI. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY dh IIL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING. = 25 ‘A Bulding Loads. 25 8 Foundations .. . 26 81, Ground Conditions 26 82. Types of Foundations. 3, Ground water Level ——s C. Structure ee eed C1. One. to Three Stor Buildings. (C2. Multbay and Mutistory Buildings. Exterior Walls (Facades) and Roofs. E. Interior Partitions Environmental Contr ‘Communications and Power Systems... 7 H. Vertical Transportation. Ltr Supt end Waste poss. Glossary ': Topics for discussion = : ‘Complete the description using one ofthe words given: Rewrite the flowing sentences in more emphatic way, sarng wih he words aver. beeeeaees Supply the corect ver fom Building materials BeenBick. Cement |. INTRODUCTION. |, PORTLAND CEMENT... UL SPECIAL CEMENTS, IV. PRODUCTION. V. CONCRETE (construction... INTRODUCTION 1, COMPOSITION... VI. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES Vil. CONCRETE MASONRY. VIll REINFORCED CONCRETE, Glas os ‘Auminium, ‘Asbestos. Asphalt. Bamboo as a Bulding Materia. Ceramics: Glossary “Topics for discussion. (ral examination Reformulate the folowing sentences using the words given 7 Fill each ofthe fllowing blanks with only one suitable word: ‘Tum into indirect speech using the folowing reporting verb Alternatives To Solid Wood Exterior Trim. BESIIISRLBRASSSSSARRRESRE Finger Jointed Wood... 7 : 60 Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL). = cB Hardboard Tim... — vo cn Glossary nonin 8B Topics for discussion. 66 Language taps soon 87 ‘Complete with only one word er Reptrase the folowing setences in such away tat means exacy ‘he same asthe sentence printed before it 67 ‘The History of Cement. : 69 What do you thnk is holding the pyramids together... 69 Early History and Development of Portland Cement 69 Roman Formula : : 70 ‘Aspdin Obtains Patent... : 70 History and Development of Portand Cement inthe United State. one Manufacturing Process... : 73 ‘Types of Portiand Cement. 4 ‘White Poriand Cement 4 Blended Hydraulic Cements. vo 7 78 Expansive Cements 16 Glo8821Y 78 Topics for iscussion.. 7al examination venieTT Complete the sentences below with one ofthe appropriate words or phrases connected with the HOUSE of the SURROUNDINGS. 7 Enis each of folonng senfences in such away tha moa rat ‘he some a ‘the sentence printed betore It i 78 Turn the following sentences into passive [BRIDGE (STRUCTURE). INTRODUCTION. ‘TYPES OF BRIDGES . Beam Bridges. Cantlaver Bridges... ‘Arch Bridges.. ‘Truss Bridges. ‘Suspension Bridges Cable-Stayed Bridges Movable Bridges. Floating Bridges BRIDGE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION. Design Selection Design Decisions. Bridge Type. Material... Foundations... Construction Methods Safety lton and Steel Bridges.. ‘Suspension Bridges: Introduction of Concrete... Recent Designs ‘The Beam Bridge Compression Tension.. Dissipation, ‘Types of Beam Bridges. ‘The Arch Bridge . Compression .. Tension “Types of Arch Bridges. Dissipation... “The Suspension Bridge Compression Tension, Glossary 100 Toples for eiscusson.. 101 ‘Complete the sentences below with ane ofthe rot words or pases ‘connected With TOOLS Fone 101 RRephrase the following sentences using tho words given 102 Language traps: 408 400 100‘Tum into Direct Speech ARCHITECTURE. Le Corbusier. Post-Revolutionary Architecture. Revival Siyies. ‘Castiron Architecture ‘Skyscraper Architecture. Moder Architecture Postwar Architecture . Greek Architecture Roman Arcitectue. Renaissance Architecture Baroque and Rococo Architecture. “The Age of Revival... Modern Architecture. Glossary . “Topics for discussion... Rephrase the following sentences Language traps: ‘Supply the right verbal form : Filin the blanks, using only one word foreach space: ‘American Architecture. I. NATIVE AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE .. I, THE COLONIAL PERIOD: 1500 TO 1783. ‘A The Spanish Colonies, BB. The French, Swedish, and Dutch Colonies. . The English Colones. IV AMERICAN GROWTH AND EXPANSION: 1815-1890. ‘A. The Grook Revival. BB. The Gothic Revival . Richardsonian Romanesque... \V. INNOVATION AND TRADITION: 1890 TO 1920. VI. THE MODERN MOVEMENT: 19208 TO 19708... ‘A Early European Modernism and Art Deco, Vil, THE 1970S TO THE PRESENT... B, Deconstuctiviam.. Glossary... Topics for discussion :. Rephrase the following sentences Correct the mistakes ‘Supply the correct verb form : Fl inthe blanks with only one word Bibliography.Foreword Itis commonly acknowledged that English has become a world language and that is actively promoted as such by institutions and by language experts, who are not necessarily native speakers. From the very beginning — six months ago - the book was meant to be a support, a tool, a “pathfinder” for those desperately in need. The book addresses the needs of the better pupils who are interested in acquiring top performance and ‘competence, especially when it comes applying fora job in building construction. ‘The book is structured in 8 chapters, each meant to supply basic information on diferent building fields (ranging from evolution and types of houses and bridges, building materials and techniques, to modern architecture). | have alsc thought it proper to provide each chapter with a short list of unknown words, hping to do something useful, i.e. fo improve their building vocabulary/ knowledge, and with a \Wwide range of grammar exercises to refresh their” memories". |1do hope some of my colleagues will fee! my intention is to share part of the activities | frequently doin cass. The bibliography at the end of the book states clearly the vast range of information sources | have drawn for. To the benefit of those eager to test their knowledge “out in the field”INTRODUCTION House (architecture), dwelling place, constructed as a home for one or more persons. Whether a crude hut or an elaborate mansion, and whatever its degree of intrinsic architectural interest, a house provides protection from weather and adversaries. ‘The physical characteristics of a house depend on the surrounding ‘environment (climate and terrain), avaliable building materials, technological know- how, and such cultural determinants as the social status and economic resources of the owner or owners, In rural areas until modern times, people and animals were often housed together; today’s houses frequently include storage, work, and guest ‘areas, with several separate spaces for different activites. Houses can be wholly below ground level, dug out of the earth, or can be partly below and partly above the ‘ground; most contemporary houses are built aboveground (over cellars in cold climates). “The primary structural materials employed are wood, sod, brick, and stone, with ‘concrete and steel increasingly used, especially for city dwellings; many of these materials are used in combination also. Choice of material depends on prevalent ble fuels, provisions may be made for heating. In modern industrialized areas, running style, individual taste, and availabilty. Depending on climate and avs ‘water and interior tollets are common. Whatever its size and conveniences, a house both contains and stands for the basic human social unit, II, HOUSES OF TRIBAL SOCIETIES ‘The indigenous people who lived along the west coast of Canada constructed rectangular houses covered with cedar planks. Many of these plank houses had brightly painted decorations and featured totem poles in front that served as family crests. 10In tribal societies the house tends to be a single volume, a room for all activities. It is usually built directly against neighbouring structures ard is often close to the tribal meetinghouse or religious structure as well. The shape of such a house may be repeated through an entire village, creating fascinating patierns, as in the Dogon district of the Sudan or the settlements of Zambian herders. Such houses ‘ate often of simple geometric shapes—circular, with conical roofs, for example. Building materials are those at hand. if mud and clay are available, they are used to fill the spaces between pieces of wood or are made into bricks (usually sun-dried) Even huge reeds are used in the construction of dwellings, as by the marsh Arabs of southern Iraq. In rainy areas most tribal houses have interior hearths, Ill, HOUSES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD In ancient Egypt ordinary people dwelt in plain, mud-brick houses of rectangular plan, Excavations indicate that workers" houses had two to four rooms all fon one floor and were densely packed into a gridike pattem, with narow alleys running between long rows of these quarters; the foremen had bigger houses. Throughout the Middle East much depended on the materials available. Where clay was found, beehive-shaped, single-room structures were common. Wherestone but no timber was available, even the roofs were made of long strips of stone. These traditions continued well into modern times. Most people ir ancient Egypt lived in mud-brick houses. The activities of everyday life occurred in and ‘around the houses. Except for the fairly elaborate chieftains’ houses, Greek dwellings remained ‘simple through classical times, A passageway led from the street info an open court off Which three or four rooms were reached, the whole being fairly small in scale. The Roman houses, as seen, for example, at Pompeii, also stood at the street's edge. Past a vestibule was an open space called the atrium, from which the sleeping rooms were reached; a colonnaded garden often stood in back. In ancient Rame most people lived in the equivalent of apartment houses, three to five stories high, with apartments ranging from three to six rooms; some were like tenements, others were ‘elaborate. At ground level were rows of small shops. The rich had huge villas ‘outside the cites that were composed of living quarters and pleasure pavilions. IV HOUSES OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE ‘This comparative sophistication in housing disappeared during the so-called Dark Ages in Europe. Although castles and primitive manors housed many people, ‘most of the remaining population were packed into simple, unsanitary dwellings huddled within the walls of small cities and towns. The countryside was unsafe, and agriculture and population both dectined; the prosperous farms of classical antiquity disappeared. Slowiy, after AD1000, conditions improved, first around the great monasteries and then in the expanding cities. The rise of a prosperous ‘mercantile class resulted in the construction of large town houses and in due time country manors. Comparatively peaceful conditions brought some improvement in housing for farm serfs, but the living conditions of the poor towr-dweller continued, on the whole, to be miserable. By the end of the Middle Ages the concept of the palace had evolved from the idea of the grand town house. These palaces were elaborate dwellings for ranking ecclesiastics, merchant princes, or ruling families; they might occupy a whole block and contain, in addition toceremonial aid private apartments, quarters for large numbers of retéiners and hangers-on. V. FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE 19TH CENTURY Chateau at Ancy-le-Franc The ltalian architect Sebastiano Serlio designed this chateau in about 1546, Located in. Ancy-Le-Frane, Tonnerre, Burgundy, the chateau is built around three sides of a courtyard. Sertlo brought an Italian influence to French architecture, which at that time was overwrought with detail. The plain surfaces and simple contours were the direct result of classical influence on Serlo's work. GiraudorvBridgeman Art Library, LondoniNew York The palace was perfected during the Renaissance and remains one of architecture's most enduring images, a dignified, large-scale city element that has been adapted and repeated ever since. Palaces were first builtin Florence Italy, and then throughout the Western world. In France the palace concept was combined with that of the late medieval castle to produce the French country chateau—the setting, with its gardens and fountains, of aristocratic life from the 1éth century ‘onward. in England the lord's manor became the squite's hall, the center of an estate that offen included villages composed of the not uncomfortable, thatched-root homes of local farmers, Meanwhile, in the cities and towns, some attempts were made to Improve the housing of ordinary folk by building more or less uniform dwellings; on the whole, however, standards remained below those of antiquity for a long time. VI. 19TH-CENTURY HOUSING ‘The Industrial Revolution brought some relief to the city poor in the form of reasonable well-built rows of small houses for labourers, especially in England, BPo a sey SUIT esac although these in time often decayed into slums. The middle class in most Western countries, able to buy land and to build, rapidly expanded into fairly comfortable large houses, the styles of which depended largely on local tradition. New transportation systems, and the desire of the middle classes to own a plot of land, produced suburbs, where the majority of independentty sited family houses are found today. As population increased, technology responded. In the U.S., for example, the balloon frame was invented in the 1830s, making solid, satisfactory housing possible through its ingenious assembly of standardized pieces of lumber —chiefly the familiar two-by four. In the cities, however, tenements persisted, offen near the elegant mansions of the rich. The Industrial Revolution also spawned the dream of having one's own house irrespective of social or economic status. By the ate 19th ‘century the construction of houses had become a major architectural subject, studied by ranking architects. Books with drawings of both simple and elaborate houses were perennially popular, and domestic architecture was discussed in the new architectural journals as well. Houses became, for many, symbols of status. Cottages and bungalows, small one-story dwellings each on its own land, proliferated. Large orate houses became fairly common, closely adjacert to their neighbours in the older cities, standing alone in the newer towns and the suburbs. Distinctive styles of domestic architecture rose in popularity and wared. The technology of the support systems—heating, cooling, and water supply, for example—improved rapidly. Once the elevator became available (after the American Civil War), the tall apartment house became increasingly oossible. Workers’ suburbs appeared, their streets solidly bullt up with two- and three- family frame houses; building speculators thrived. Dealing in real estate quickiy became a major occupation, and houses began to change hands more frequently 1s families became more mobile.Vil, 20TH-CENTURY HOUSING Houses that broke with historical architectural styles were slow to be accepted. As early as 1889 the American architect Frank Lloyd Wright built a house ‘embodying new concepts of spatial flow from one room to another. He end others, both in Europe and in the United States, soon moved toward a domestic ‘architectural style of metric forms and simplified surfaces largely free of decoration, Contemporary changes in painting and sculpture were allied to this movement, and by the 1920s modem architecture, though by no means universally accepted, had arrived, Glass, steel, and concrete reinforced with steel gave architects many new design options, and by the mid-20th century the modern house was commonplace. Glass boxes, freely curving styles, and stark, austere geometric forms were all possible; but at the same time traditional styles persisted, and in the U.S. many homeowners found a more or less standard, one-foor, two- or three-bedroom ranch house satisfactory, Located in Bear Run, Pennsylvania, the house known as Falingwater was designed by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright in the 1930s for the Kaufmann family. Thispicture shows the section ofthe house that extends over a natural waterfal, an example of Wright's belief that a building's form should be determined by is environment. The contrasts in the textures and colours of natural stone, concrete, and painted metal on the building's exterior are characteristic of Wrights innovative syle. Vill HOUSES OF THE FAR EAST House types in India vary greally according to region, climate, and local tradition, The vilages have courtyard houses as well as simple, single-volume dwellings; in the cities, densely populated tenements are found as well. Palaces abound in all areas; many are fortified, and some that are open to the lend have ‘multiple outbuildings such as pleasure pavilions. European influence is mosty limited to certain areas in the major cites. te ” This contemporary house in Hangzhou, China, typifies the basic architectural style of that country, which hasn't changed significantly in centuries. The structure is made of ‘wood, with piers for support. The roof, made of tie, features curving lines with wide, tumed-up eaves supported on carved brackets.In China, the courtyard house, built of wood with a tile roof, has persisted for many centuries. Walled in, itis a microcosm of Chinese social traditions. Rows of single-volume dwellings, each with a tiny court or garden, are also found. At the other end of the scale are the imperial palace compounds, of which the Forbidden City in Beijing is the outstanding example. The various buildings of these compounds, laid out to form a vast, symmetrical complex, are @ symbolic summary of the celestial claims of the emperors and the society they geverned. In Japan, the traditional house is an elongated and somewhat rambling affar, made of ‘wood and roofed with tile; if space is available, a garden, however small, is included. Good proportions in design and elegant simplicity of form are always evident Western architectural influence has perhaps been greater in Japan than in the rest of the Orient, although Japanese architects have themselves been in the forefront of the modern movement in architecture, The Bauhaus ‘Swiss-bom French architect Le Corbusier incorporated Bauhaus influences into his design of the pilgrimage church of Notre-Dame-du-Haut (1950-1955), located in Ronchamp, France. Le Corbusier's patron for the building, Father Courturer, believed‘that an architect could best design an effective expression of spiritual consciousness if given the utmost in creative freedom. Le Corbusle’s unique creation at Ronchamp reflecs Coutrer’s artiste latitude, exhibling an unconventional synthesis. of ‘conograph,architecture, and sculpture. When the Bauhaus opened, the modem movement in architecture began to coalesce, The Bauhaus schoo! (Weimar, 1919-1925; Dessau, 1926-1993) brought together architects, painters, and designers from several countries, all determined to formulate goals for the visual ars in the modem age. Its fst director was Walter Gropius, who designed the innovative buildings for the move to Dessau; its second was Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. The new architecture demonstrated its virtues in new Sledlungen (low-cost housing) in Bern and Frankfurt An exhibition of housing types, the Weissenhof Siedlung (1927) in Stutigar, brought together works by Mies, Gropius, the Dutch J. J. P. Oud, and the Swiss-French Le Corbusier; this milestone identified the movement with a bette life for the common man. The chastely elegant. German Pavilion (1929) by Mies for the Barcelona Exhibition, ‘executed in such lavish materials 2s travertine, marble, onyx, and chrome-plated steel, asserted a strong, formal argument independent of any social goals. Gropius, his disciple Marcel Breuer, and Mies eventually established themselves in the U. ‘where they enjoyed productive and jnfluential decades—extending through the 1970s for Breuer—as architects and teachers.The large open spaces and modem buildings of Brasilia, the capital ‘city of Brazil represent a planning _ ideal developed by ‘Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier and carried out by Brazilian architects Locio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer. The Brazilian government Constructed the ty onan ‘undeveloped site during the late 1950s and early 1960s to encourage settlement inthe inland regions of Brazil The Cathedral Metropolitana is one of several buildings designed by Braziian architect Oscar Niemeyer in the Brazlian capital, Braslia, The mostly underground cathedral has 16‘curved columns and a stained glass interior. Standing near the entrance are four large statues known as the Four Evangelists Modern architecture also challenged traditional ideas about the types of structures suitable for architectural design. Important civic buildings, aristocratic palaces, churches, and public institutions had long been the mainstay of architectural practices, but modemist designers argued that architects should ven the most humble buildings. They design all that was necessary for society, began to plan low-cost housing, railroad stations, factories, warehouses, and commercial spaces. In the first half of the 20th century many modernists produced housing as well as furniture, textiles, and wallpaper to create a totally designed domestic environment. Developments in two materials—iron and concrete—forned the technological basis for much modem architecture. In 1779 English architect Thomas Pritchard designed the first structure bult entirely of east iron: Iron bridge, a bridge ‘over the River Severn in England. At around the same time, another Englishman experimented with a compound of time, clay, sand, and iron slag to produce concrete. Iron had been used since antiquity to tie building elements together, but after the creation of Iron bridge it look on a new role as a primary structural ‘material. Builders. throughout Europe and North America began to erect warehouses with beams of iron instead of wood and to create storefronts with cast- iron facades. Glossary crude = basic, simple adversaries = enemy . sod = a layer of earth with grass init cedar = a green lumber" cedru crest = a design that represents a family herder = the mob hearth = a kind of fireplace plain = simple, pure, natural grid = net, web quarter = district, area Et)foreman = chiet chieftain = group leader atsium = entrance hal story = floor, level tenement = a large building rented cheaply manor = a large house with an estate to huddle = to group, to cluster serf = a peasant retainer = a servant on a long term hanger — on = follower overwrought = nervous squire ~ landowner thatched ~ roof = @ roof covered with straw slum = a poor house mainly to spawn = to expand ‘waned = to become less important to thrive = to succeed, to develop stark = plain, basic the iower part of the root ‘a wooden or metal device used to sustain to elongate = to make something longer spreading In various direction the leader to.coalesce = to unite, to combine milestone = a very important stage chastely = pure, decent onyx = a stone with diferent coloured layers Topics for discussi 1. How can you explain the difference between various civilisations concerning their houses? Is the dliference stil preserved? 2. How do you think the Romanians used to live? 3. The importance of environment. 4, Describe a building you pass by on your way to college Complete with the most appropriate word for each space : = When | first arived here to take up my new job, | stayed in a hotel, but ! soon started looking for some permanent (1). The frst flat | (2) over was in (8), and was obviously very damp in winter. Quite apart from the fact that the oniy (4) was a brick 2wall. Then I had a look at a small flat in @ modem (6). Ithad a (6) space and a garden but the (7) was far too high for me. | didn't want to (8) up in a tiny place, so | answered an ad for house-sharing. ‘The house was in a quiet (9), and as soon as | saw it | fll n love with it. There was a high overgrown (10) around the front garden, and (11) to park cars in the drive, The room to (12) looked out (13) the back garden, and had a big bay window. though it ‘meant (14) the kitchen and the living room, | did have my own bath, really Just a ‘shower and washbasin (16) into what must have once been a cupboard. * Reformulate the following sentences so that they mean the same : 4. Ididnt go out so often when I was a child Vidette 2, Police finaly arrested the serial killer Finally, the serial kill... 3. We shall send our car to a service tomorrow. We'll o 4, ‘was accustomed to waking up early. He 5. ltake my suit to the laundry. vw 6. This Is useful for the pain. Vee 7. if you don't pay him the money he'll send someone to kill you. If you don’t pay him the money he.... 8. He will finally convince Mary to do the job for him, He wil finally... 9. The bridge wil take us three years to complete. In three years time .. 40. Thaven't seen Ann for years. Its years since... 11. Henry lef before we arrived at the hotel By the time 12, Thisis the first time she behaves so unfriendly. She 13, She wasn't home when you called, e 14.” Taoubt that he will come tonight. t 16. Her self-sufficiency iritates me most. What... 2‘Supply the right verbal form : | went to the doctor's yesterday. I (to have to) wait for an hour before he (can) ‘see me. *| (lo go) abroad next week. But | (to have) a pain for two days. ito think) I bbe well enough to go? * “When | (to examine) you, I'l be able to tell you," the doctor said. * (to work) in the garden when | suddenly felt the pain.” | told the doctor. “If | (to stop) Immediately, it would have been allright , | suppose . But | hardly ever (to get) any exercises in my job so | went on working. * After examining me carefully the doctor ssaid :" You (to hurt) a bone in your back * 2BBuil ding Construction INTRODUCTION Building Construction, procedures involved in the erection of various types of structures. The major trend in present-day Construction continues away from hhandcrafting at the building site and toward on-site assembly of ever lerger, more integrated subassemblies manufactured away from the site. Another characteristic ‘of contemporary building, related to the latter trend, is the greater amount of dimensional coordination; that is, buildings are designed and components manufactured in multiples of a standard module (10 cmv/4 in being standard in the U.S,) which drastically reduces the amount of cutting and fiting required on the building site, A third trend Is the production or redevelopment of such large structural complexes as shopping centres, entire campuses, and whoe towns or sections of cities. Il, CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Building Construction in the U.S. is the product of a diverse group of ‘subindustries, with many individuals and organizations involved in the Construction of a single structure, from the manufacture of necessary components to final assembly. As a general rule, state laws require 2 registered architect or engineer, or both, to execute the design and to make sure that the design complies with public health, zoning, and bullding-code requirements. The design must at the same time conform to the requirements of the owner, The architect or engineer converts these requirements into a set of drawings and ‘written specifications that usually are sent to interested general contractors for bids. The successful bidder or bidders in turn subcontract plumbing, painting,electrical wiring, structural frame Construction and erection, and other jobs to firms specializing in these craft. Contractors ordinarily carry out their work under the observation of an architect or engineer, who acts as agent of the owner. State and local inspectors review the work for general compliance with the local building code. The immediate responsibility of the contractor, architect, and engineer ands when the local authorities approve the building for occupancy and the owner accepts the building. However, the contractor, architect, and engineer are legally responsible for any deficiencies in the construction or design for a period of several years after acceptance, the time depending on the terms ofthe contract and local laws. Il], ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING ‘The major elements of a bullding include the following: (1) the foundation, which supports the building and provides stability; (2) the structure, which supports all the imposed loads and transmits them to the foundation; (3) the exterior walls, which may or may not be part of the primary supporting structure; (4) the Interior partitions, which also may or may not be part of the primary structure; (5) the environmental-control systems, including the heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, lighting, and acoustical systems; (6) the vertical transportation systems, including elevators, escalators, and stairways; (7) Communications, which may include such subsystems as intercommunications, public address, and closed-circult telavision, as well as the more usual telephone-wiring systems; and (8) the power, water supply, and waste disposal systems. A Building Loads ‘The loads imposed on a building are classified as either “dead” or live.” Dead Joads include the weight of the building itself and all major items of fixed equipment. Dead loads always act directly downward, act constantly, and are additive fom the top of the building down. Live loads include wind pressure, seismic forces, vibrations, ‘caused by machinery, movable furniture, stored goods and equipment, occupants, 2s‘and forces caused by temperature changes. Live loads are temporary and can produce pulsing, vibratory, or impact stresses. In general, the design of a bulding must ‘accommodate all possible dead and live loads to prevent the building from settling or collapsing and to prevent any permanent distortion, excessive motion, discomfort to occupants, or rupture at any point B Foundations The structural design of a building depends greatly on the nature of the soil and underlying geologic conditions and modification by man of either ofthese factors. B1. Ground Conditions If a building is to be constructed in an area that has a history of earthquake activity, the earth must be investigated to a considerable depth. Faults in the crust of the earth beneath the soll must obviously be avoided. Some sols may liquefy when subjected to the shock waves of a quake and become like quicksand. In such cases, ‘lther construction must be avoided altogether or the foundation must be made deep enough to reach solid material below the potentially unstable soil. Certain clay soils have been found to expand 23 cm (9 in) of more if subjected to long cycles of drying for wetting, thus producing powerful forces that can shear foundaticns and lift lightweight buildings. Some soils with high organic content may, over time, ‘compress under the building load to a fraction of their original volume, causing the structure to settle, Other soils tend to slide under loads. Soils that have been modified in some way often perform differently, especially when other soil has been added to or mixed with existing sol, or when the soll has been made wetter or drier than normal, or when cement or Chemicals such as lime have been added. Sometimes the soil under a proposed building varies so greatly over the entire site that a building simply cannot be constructed safely or ‘economically. 6Soll and geologic analyses are necessary, therefore, to determine whether a proposed building can be supported adequately and what would be the most effective and economical method of support If there is sound bedrock a short distance below the surface of the construction site, the area over which the building loads are distributed can be quite small because of the strength of the rock. As progressively weaker rock and soils are encountered, however, the area over which the loads are distributed must be increased, 2. Types of Foundations. ‘The most common types of foundation systems are classified as shallow and deep. Shallow foundation systems are several feet below the bottom of the build examples are spread footings and mats. Deep foundations extend several dozen feet below the building; examples are piles and caissons. The foundation chosen for any particular building depends on the strength of the rock or soil, magnitude of structural loads, and depth of groundwater level ‘The most economical foundation is the reinforced-concrete spread footing, which Js used for buildings in areas where the subsurface conditions present no unusual difficulies. The foundation consists of concrete slabs located under each structural ‘column and a continuous slab under load-bearing walls, Mat foundations are typically used when the building loads are so extensive and the soll so weak that individual footings would cover more than half the bulding aréa, ‘A matis a fat concrete slab, heavily reinforced with steel, which cartes the downward loads of the individual columns or walls. The mat load per unit area that is transmitted to the underlying soll is small in magnitude and is distributed over the entire area. For large mats supporting heavy buildings, the loads are distrisuted mere evenly by using supplementary foundations and cross walls, which stiffen the mat Piles are used primarily in areas where near-sufface soll conditions are poor, ‘They are made of timber, concrete, or stee! and are located in clusters. The piles are dfiven down to strong soil or rock at a predetermined depth, and each cluster is then covered by a cap of reinforced concrete. A pile may support its load either at the lower 2fend or by skin fiction along its entire length. The number-of piles in each cluster is determined by the structural load and the average load-carrying capacity of each pile in the cluster. A timber pile is simply the trunk of a tree stripped of its branches and is thus limited in height. A conerete pile, on the other hand, may be of any reasonable length and may extend below groundwater level as wel. For extremely heavy or tall buildings, steel ples, known as H-piles because of their shape, are used. +-piles are driven through to bedrock, often as far as 30m (100 ft) below the surface. H-piles ‘can be driven to great depths more easily than piles made of wood o- concrete: lings, ‘although they are more expensive, the cost is usually justified for large which represent a substantial financial investment. Caisson foundations are used when soil of adequate bearing strengh is found below surface layers of weak materials such as fll or peat. A caisson foundation ‘consists of concrete columns constructed in cylindrical shafts excavated under the proposed structural column locations. The caisson foundations cary the building loads at their lower ends, which are often bell-shaped. B 3. Ground water Level Foundation construction is complicated by groundwater flowing above the bottom ofthe proposed foundation level. In such cases the sides of the excavation may be undermined and cave in. Lowering the groundwater level by pumping the water out, of he excavation usually requires the instalation of braced in ede gheathing to shore up ‘or retain, the sides of the excavation to prevent any cave-ins. When the amount of water within the excavation is excessive, ordinary pumping methods, which bring to the surface loose soil mixed with the water, can Undermine the foundations of buildings on adjoining property. To prevent damage caused by soil movement, well point dewatering is offen used. Wellpoints are, small pipes with a perforated screen at one end. They are driven or jetted into the ground ‘50 that the screen, which prevents soil from flowing in with the water, is below ‘groundwater level. These pipes are linked to a common manifold (pipe) that is connected to a water pump. In this way the groundwater is removed from below the excavation without damaging nearby property. Dewatering may also make it unnecessary to sheathe the sides of the excavation, providing the soll will not side 28into the excavation because ofits composition or because of vibrations fiom nearby heavy traffic or machinery. . Structure ‘The basic elements of any ordinary structure are the floors and root (Including horizontal supporting members), columns and walls (vertical members), and bracing (diagonal members) or rigid connections used to give the structure stability C 1. One-to Three-Story Buildings ‘With iow buildings the varity of possible shapes is much greater than with taller buildings. In addition to the familar box shape, whichis also used in very tall bacon, urge ay eee fers dames ko single-story structure might consist of a reinforced-concrete slab laid directly on the ‘ound, exterior masonry walls supported by the slab (or by a spread footing east continuously around the perimeter of the building), and a roof. For low buldings, the Use of interior columns between masonry load-bearing wall is stil the most common construction method. Spaced columns supported by the slab or by individual spread footings may be used, however; in that case the estoror walls ‘an be supported by or hung between the columns. Ifthe oof span is shor, abutting planking made of wood, steel, concrete, or other material can be used 0 form the roof structure. Each structural material has a particular welght-to-strength ratio, cost, and durabilty. As a general rule, the greater the roof span, the more complicated the structure supporting the roof becomes and the narrower the range of suitable materials. Depending on the length of the span, the roof may have one-way framing beams or two-way framing (beams supported on larger girders spanning the longest dimension). Trusses can be substituted for either method. Trusses, which ccan be less than 30 cm (12 in) or more than 9 m (30 f) deep, are formed by assembling tension and compression members in various triangular patterns. They are usually made of timber or steel, but reinforced concrete may be used. 2»The structure of a simple one-story building may also consist of the wall and roof framing combined by being either fastened together or shaped in one piece. ‘The possible structural shapes are almost infinte and include the three sides of 2 rectangle fastened together into a unit called 2 bent, the familiar church form of vertical sides and sloping roof, the parabola, and the semicirce or dome, “The supporting structure and exterior walls, floor, and roof may also be made as ‘a unified whole, much lke @ rectangular pipe with closed or open ends. These forms may be east in vents plastic. NoWlerad 2. Multibay and Multistory Buildings By far the most common form of building structure is the skeleton frame, which consists essentially of the vertical members, combined with a horizortal framing pattern, For tall buildings, the use of load-bearing walls with horizortal framing members has declined steadily; nonload-bearing curtain walls are used most ‘frequently. ‘The skeleton frame most often consists of multiples of the construction For structures up to 40 stories high, reinforced concrete, steel, or composite reinforced concrete and steel can be used in a variety of ways. The basic elements of the steel skeleton frame are vertical columns, horizontal girders spanning the longer distance between columns, and beams spanning shorter distance. The frame is reinforced to prevent distortion and possible collapse because of unevan vibratory Joads. Lateral stabilty is provided by connecting the beams, columns, and girders; by the support given the structure by the floors and interior walls; and by diagonal bracing oF rigid connections between columns, girders, and beams. Reinforced ‘concrete can be used in a similar way, except that concrete shear walls would be used instead of diagonal bracing to provide lateral stability. Newer techniques of constructing moderately high buildings Include inserting profericatd units within the skeleton frame cable hanging; and stacking [24199 2 For the insertion technique, @ stable skeleton frame may be constucted with a utlity core that includes FP stairs, elevators, plumbing, piping, and wiring, 30Prefabricated boxlke units then can be inserted in the openings betwoen the horizontal and vertical framing. Major changes in the future use of the building could then be made by removing and replacing the boxlke units. In hanging, a vertical utility core is built, and strong horizontal roof framing is anchored to the top of the core: All floors below, except at ground level, are supported by attaching them to the core and to tension members hung from the roof framing. After the core is complete, the floors are built from the top down. Stacking is a construction technique in which prefabricated, boxlke units are raised by cranes and placed on top of and alongside each other and then are fastened together. For buildings over 40 stories, typically steel had been considered the most appropriate material. However, recent advances in the development of high- strength concretes have made concrete competitive with steel, Tall buildings often ed structural solutions to resist lateral loads, such as require more sophis Wind, and earthquake forces. One of the more popular structural systems is the exterior structural tube, which was used in the construction of the World Trade Cenite towers (411 m/1360 ft) in New York City. Closely spaced columns were cconnectel rigidly to the horizontal spandrel beams on the perimeter of the building, which provided sufficient "strength to resist loads and the stiness to minimize lateral oflectons, The structural tube has now been used with concrete and with composite construction consisting of structural stee! members encased in reinforced concrete. For very tall buildings, the mixing of steel and concrete is becoming more popular. The high strength-to-weight ratio of steel is excellent for the horizontal spanning members. High-strength concretes can economically provide the compression resistance needed for vertical members. In addition, the mass and Internal damping properties of the concrete assist in minimizing vibration effects, which are potential problems in very tall buildings 3Exterior Walls (Facades) and Roofs. The curtain wall, the most common type of nonload-bearing wall, may be assembled elther on or off the site. It consists of an exterior skin backed with Insulation; a vapour barier; sound-deadening materials; and an interior skin that may be part of the curtain wall or may be attached separately. The exterior skin may be made of metal (stainless steel, aluminium, bronze), masonry (concrete, brick, tile), or glass. Limestone, marble, granite, and precast concrete panels are also used for facades. ‘The traditional method of constructing a roof is to lay down, over a steel or ‘concrete deck, spanning the framing members, rolls of roofing felt laminated with tar ‘and tapped with gravel. Synthetic materials are also being used increasingly in place Of felt and tar. New grasslike and rugike materials made of plastic enable recreation ‘areas to be built on top of roofs at tle expense. E. Interior Partitions Traditional methods of partitioning a building interior include the use of masonry walls 10 to 15 om (4 to 6 in) thick made of concrete, gypsum, or pumice block, painted or plastered; or wood or metal frames covered with lath over which plaster is spread. Plasterboard and wallboard are increasingly used. To provide for greater flexibility within buildings, movable or easily disassembled partitioning systems are used, the only restriction to their placemen: being the spacing of the interior columns. Such partitions may be metal, prefabricated plasterboard components, accordionlike rolling curtains, or, if sound transmission is a problem, leaded curtains that move either horizontally “or vertically. Lightweight ‘materials usually mean an increase in transmitted sound and a loss of privacy. Nevertheless, the trend is toward lighter partitions and increased use of sound- absorbing materials. In many buildings, the only walls stil made of masonry are fire walls, which enclose elevator shafts, stars, and main corridors. a 32Environmental Control Perhaps the greatest improvements in building construction have been in heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, and sound control. In most large buildings complete, year-round alr conditioning is now standard. Some areas in a building ‘may need to be cooled even in winter, depending on the distance from exterior walls ‘and the heat generated by lighting, electrical equipment, or human occupancy. The level and quality of lighting have improved greatly. Largely as a consequence of these changes, the cost of the mechanical and electrical systems in buldings has increased at a greater rate than other individual building costs; such costs ‘currently account for a quarter to a third of total construction expenditure, Increasingly since the late 1970s all these systems are automatically operated and controlled by computers that are programmed to maximize efficiency and minimize waste and energy consumption, ‘Communications and Power Systems ‘The growing use of power, telephone, and facsimile transmission equipment and ‘of closed circuit television, intercommunication, and security and alarm systems has increased the amount of wiring that must be installed in buildings. Main cables run vertically in open shafts, with branches at each floor running through conduits located either in the hung’ celing space or embedded inthe floor slab itself ‘The electrical power required in buildings has increased with the number and complexity of environmental systems in operation. Because a power outage cannot be tolerated, emergency power generators are installed in an increasing number of buildings. Some buildings, particulary in remote locations, are equipped with their own primary electrical generating systems. Diesel and gas-turbine generators fare used. The heat generated by these engines, instead of being wasted, is sometimes utiized for other purposes within the bulding, : 3H. Vertical Transportation Elevators, especially high-speed, automatically controlled, cable-operated elevators, are the major form of vertical transportation in high- fise structures (see Elevator). Low-rise buildings and the lower floors of ‘commercial buildings may also have escalators. For fie protection, itis necessary to provide at least two means of egress from every major space in a building. ‘Therefore, in addition to elevators and escalators, all buildings, even the tallest, have two enclosed and protected stairways for their entire height. 1. Water Supply and Waste Disposal Buildings must have a piped-in water supply for a variety of purposes: