NicoleDoherty,GinaHan,SophieZacharakis,JenniferZhang AnnotatedBibliography PrimarySources(48) "19460131,[Link]."Interview [Link].N.p.,[Link]. <[Link] [Link] primarysource,[Link], JusticeJacksonoftenspeaksaboutthemeasuresthatweretakentomakesurethatthetrials [Link],TheAmericancase isfoundedoncapturedGermandocuments...Also,Jacksonacknowledgesthatinthefuture, theremaybeaggressorsthatendupwinningawar,andthusgetawaywiththeiraggression, buthealsofollowsupwiththefactthattheAlliesshouldnotrefusetoprosecutethosewhoare caughtbecauseothersequallyguiltymayescapeprosecution.

Jacksonemphasizestheimpact ofthetrialstothefuture,andprecedentthattheysettouseruleoflawandcreatemoraland [Link] theAllies,aresponsibilitytosetanexampleforfuturegenerations,anexamplesetinruleoflaw, ratherthanvengeance. "BackgroundandPreparationfortheNurembergTrials."[Link] League,[Link].29Sept.2013. <[Link] ThissecondarysourcediscussessuchpracticalprocessesofthetrialsastheRightsofthe Defendantstodefense,assistanceofcounsel,crossexamination,andhavingaccesscopiesof [Link],itprovidesa longspanningoverviewofthetrials,beginningwiththeHolocaustandendingwiththetwelve [Link] severalquotesfromvarioushistoriansandprofessorsdiscussingtheeffectsoftheNuremberg [Link] judgementsonhow"fair"[Link] allowustojudgeifthetrialswereafairexecutionofaresponsibility,ora"rigged"caseof Victor'[Link],andintendedforthe generalpublic. Birkett,Justice."InternationalLegalTheoriesEvolvedatNuremberg."International Affairs23.3(1947):[Link].12Oct.2013. ThisisaprimarysourcewrittenbyJusticeBirkett,analternateBritishjudgeattheNuremberg [Link],itcanbe

[Link],Birkett [Link],heliststhecharges madeagainstthetrials,[Link],hestatesthatthesetupofthe [Link] Courtonlyhadvictoriouspowers,Birkettwritesthattohaveneutralpowersinsteadwouldbe impracticalbecauseoftheextralanguagebarriers,andnotonlythat,buttheneutralpowers wouldbedifficulttofind,[Link] [Link] responsetothecriticismofthelackoftruedocumentationofthelegalityofthechargeslaid downatNuremberg,hestatesthatinternationallawisnotcreatedbyasovereignbody,andis [Link],tothecriticismofthebasisofthetrialsinexpostfactolaw,hequotes [Link],hebelievesthatthetrialswere [Link],Birkettdoescontend thattheLondonCharteronlyappliedtotheAxispowers,whichisafallacyofthetrialsandtheir [Link],stating thattheAllieswerefairlyfulfillingaresponsibility. Burson,Harold."19451120,Session1."[Link], [Link]. <[Link] ThissourcewasascriptforanewsbroadcastwrittenbyHaroldBursonaboutthefirstdayof [Link],thusshouldbe [Link],BursonsAmericanrootscouldleadhimtoseethetrialsina [Link],Bursondescribesthegeneralsettingofthecourthouseandthe trials,describeseachofthedefendantsbriefly,andrecountsaninterviewwithoneoftheguards [Link] [Link],withonlyafewwhowere [Link] alsoarticulatesthattheNurembergTrialswereoftencalledthemostsignificanttrial[s]inthe historyoftheworld,furtheremphasizingtheTrialssignificance. Burson,Harold."19451121,Session2."[Link], [Link]. <[Link] [Link] documentprovidesarelativelyclearandobjectiveviewofthetrials,especiallysinceitwas [Link],theAmericanaffiliationsthatBursonandthatthe [Link],thisdocumentshows theimportance,ofouroverarchingideaforthisproject,[Link] secondsession,afteranopeningaddress,therewasimmediatelyadefensepleachallengingthe [Link], withJusticeJacksonexplainingthelegalityofthecase,citingpactsthatoutlawedaggressivewar [Link],JusticeJacksonalsomakesit

clearthatthecrimesthattheindividualscommittedcouldnothavebeenindictediftheywerenot [Link],Germansareontrialnot [Link],thisdocumentnotonlyshows thesignificanceofthequestionofthelegalityofthetrials,alongwithprovidinginformationon howthetrialswereexecuted,[Link] trialsweremuchanticipated,andmetwithexcitement. "CharteroftheInternationalMilitaryTribunal."EncyclopediaofGenocideandCrimes [Link]:MacmillanReferenceUSA, [Link].12Sept.2013. [Link],which [Link] waswrittenattheLondonConference,inthepresenceofonlythefourvictoriouscountriesof WWII(theUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,France,andtheSovietUnion),thedocument [Link] Tribunal,liststhecrimesthatagrouporindividualcanbeconvictedof(suchasCrimesagainst Peace),statesthegeneralprinciplesthatwillguidetheIMT,attemptstomakethetrialsfair, describesthetrialprocessandtheIMTspowers,delineateshowdefendantswillbesentenced, [Link] itisprimary,andthusuncorrupted,butalsobecauseitgivesinsightintothepointofviewofthe victors. "ConventionBetweentheUnitedStatesofAmericaandOtherPowers,RelatingtoPrisonersofWar July27,1929."[Link],[Link].19Feb.2014. Thisdocumentismorecommonlyknownbythename"TheGenevaConvention(1929.)"It enteredintoforceonJune19,1931,andconcernedthetreatmentofPrisonersofWarandthe [Link],andalongwiththetheHague Conventionsof1899and1907,servedastreatiesexistingpreviouslytothestartofWorldWar [Link] befoundonourwebsiteonthepage,"InternationalLawPriortotheTrials,"inthesection, "TheExistingTreaties." "Convention(II)withRespecttotheLawsandCustomsofWaronLandandItsAnnex:Regulations [Link],29July1899."[Link]. N.p.,[Link].19Feb.2014. Thisdocumentisfeaturedonourwebsiteunderalinkonthe"HistoryofInternationalLaw" page.ItwascreatedattheFirstHagueConventionin1899,andoutlineshowprisonersofwar [Link],[Link] oneofthetreatiesexistingprevioustothestartofWorldWarTwounderwhichGermanymight legallybetried,withouttheissueofexpostfactolaw,intheNurembergtrials. "Convention(IV)RespectingtheLawsandCustomsofWaronLandandItsAnnex:Regulations

[Link],18October1907." [Link].N.p.,[Link].19Feb.2014. Thisdocumentisfeaturedonourwebsiteunderalinkonthe"HistoryofInternationalLaw" page.ItwascreatedattheSecondHagueConventionin1907,andservesasaconfirmationof theverysimilar"Convention(II)withRespecttotheLawsandCustomsofWaronLandand itsannex:[Link],29July 1899."[Link] ofthemajorpowers,andservedasyetanothertreatyunderwhichGermanycouldbetriedat theNurembergTrials,whichexistedpriortothestartofWorldWarTwo. [Link]. London:n.p.,[Link].16Nov.2013. ThiswasastatementbroadcastedbytheCzechoslovakMinisterofJustice,JaroslavSvansky, ontheOfficialNewsAgencyonNovember28,[Link]'s GovernmentinExile,whichwasstatingtheirplanforbringingjusticeandpunishmenttowar [Link](expostfactolaws)andto enactspeciallawsforthosewhoweresimplyvictims,andnot"theauthorsorwillingassistants ofcriminalactionsbytheenemy."TheintentionsoftheCzechoslovakiangovernmentarea [Link], [Link] perspectiveonprosecutionhelpstoshedlightonthevictor'[Link]. "CONVENTIONWITHRESPECTTOTHELAWSANDCUSTOMSOFWARONLAND (HAGUE,II)(29July1899)."LawsandCustomsofWaronLand(HagueII)July29, 1899.29,TheHague,TheNetherlands.N.p.,[Link]:Lillian [Link].29Sept.2013. <[Link] IndescribingthegeneralallowedtermsofwaragreeduponbycountriesincludingGermany,this primarydocument,aspecificarticleoftheHagueConference,wasreferencedbyprosecutorsin theNurembergTrialstohelpconvictthedefendantsandwasthereforeanimportantdocument toreadtohelpoutlinetheTrialsinthehistoricalcontextonthestateofinternationallawin regardstothecustomsandlawsofwar. "TheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations."[Link],10 Jan.1920,Paris.N.p.:n.p.,[Link]:[Link]. 3Jan.2014.<[Link] ThecharterforthecreationoftheLeagueofNationsoutlineditsmainprinciplesandisessential tounderstandingthecontextofinternationallawatthetimebeforethesecondworldwarand [Link] governingauthorityandthroughthereadingofitwithabackgroundinthecontextofthefailure oftheLeaguetopreventWorldWarII,thisprimarydocumentshedslightonthefundamental

problemsinauthorityandprocedurethattheLeaguehadfromthebeginning,somethingthatthe IMTandthecreationoftheUNseekedtoavoidinthefuture. "CrimesAgainstHumanity."LearningAbouttheHolocaust:AStudent'[Link] [Link]:MacmillanReferenceUSA,[Link] [Link].22Sept.2013. CrimesAgainstHumanityisanotherprimarysourcedocumentwrittenbytheInternational [Link],thetypesofinternationalwarcrimesandtheirdistinguishing [Link],however, butspecificallyfortheNurembergTrials,[Link],since itwaswrittenbytheIMT,thecrimescouldbedescribedinaspecificwayastomakethe [Link], thosewhostatethatthecrimesarenotcrimesbutratherpoliticalacts,bystatingthattheIMT wastryingtoprotectallhumanbeings...underallconditions,completelyindependentofwarlike [Link] wereheldon,andtheIMTsjustificationoftheirdefinitionsofcrime. Dean,Gordon."[Link]:HisContributionatNuremberg."AmericanBarAssociation Journal41.10(1955):[Link].9Oct.2013. <[Link] Theauthor,GordonDeananassistantunderChiefAmericanProsecutorRobertJackson duringtheTrialsinthissourcedescribesthecontributionoftheproceduresandphilosophies [Link] philosophyJacksonappliedandthehistoricalsignificancehehadonthedevelopmentof [Link] rightsthattheAllieshaveinholdingtheTrialsbyreferencingspecificinternationaltreatiesand bringingforththefactthatinternationallawhadnocontinuinginternationalauthority,andthe developmentofitatNurembergwasjust. Doman,NicholasR."TheNurembergTrialsRevisited."AmericanBarAssociation Journal.47.3(1961):[Link].27Sept.2013. [Link] [Link] [Link],heisproAllies,anditshowsinhispointofview. [Link]. [Link] [Link],DomanpointsoutthatalthoughKnieriemisabletoconcedethatthe Germanywasacriminalstate(especiallyinthelateryearsofthewar)andtheprincipleof criminalresponsibilityandpunishability,hedoesnotmakeenoughofadifferencebetweenthe differenttypesofcrimesindictedatthetrials,suchascrimesagainstpeaceandcrimesagainst [Link] portraystheAlliespointofview,whichlionizesthetrialsasfulfillmentofaresponsibilityto

preservetherightsofhumanity. Ehard,Hans."TheNurembergTrialAgainsttheMajorWarCriminalsandInternationalLaw."The AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw43.2(1949):[Link].4Jan.2014. [Link],alawyerandpoliticianduringtheeraofWorldWar [Link],Ehardiscriticalofthetrials,callingtheman"abuseofpower"andstating thatthelackofagreementoverwhat"aggressivewar"isbytheinternationalcommunityandthe [Link] thetrials,hedoesconcedeandsaythat"Fromatechnicalpointofview,thetrialwasan importantaccomplishment."Heisstatingthatthemethods(andtechnicalities)oftheNuremberg Trialswereindeedaccordingtoaliberaljudicialsystemandwerefair,butthetrialsthemselves [Link],wecanexpect himtobeabigproNaziandtohaveageneralskewagainsttheNurembergTrialsandthe [Link],hedoesmakesomeimportantpointsabouttheNurembergTrials. Eisenhower,[Link].15Apr.1945. EisenhowerPresidentialLibraryandMuseum.N.p.,[Link].18Dec.2013. Thisprimaryletter,[Link] 1945,mainlycontainsinformationonfuturewarplansandopinionsontheabilitiesandbehavior [Link]'sbriefreferencestohis visittoacamp,[Link] forfearthatitwouldmakehimsick,andrecommendsthatGeneralMarshallcomeandseeitfor [Link]"TheAtrocitiesof WorldWar2"[Link] [Link] ourpage,andhelpedtogiveanauthoritativeandfirsthandvoiceinthediscussionofthe atrocitiescommittedbytheNazis. "EnactmentsandApprovedPapersoftheControlCouncilandCoordinatingCommittee."Enactments andApprovedPapersoftheControlCouncilandCoordinatingCommittee:MilitaryLegal Resources(FederalResearchDivision:CustomizedResearchAndAnalyticalServices, LibraryofCongress).N.p.,[Link].21Sept.2013. <[Link] Thisisacollectionofseveralvolumesofprimarydocumentsfrom1945to1948,including enactmentsandapprovedpapers,representingtheeffortoftheUK,US,SovietUnion,and [Link],which couldpossiblyhavemotivationtopresentinformationthatisfavorabletoUSactionsand [Link],[Link] PDFsonapubliclyintendedwebsite.

Ferencz,Ben."TheReckoning:TheBattlefortheInternationalCriminalCourt."[Link], [Link].22Sept.2013. <[Link] ThisisaPBSinterviewconductedwithBenFerencz,oneoftheAmericanprosecutors,from July14,[Link],butrealisticallylacked. Healsosaysthatheattemptedtocreateamorehumaneandpeacefulworldthroughlawduring [Link],andwhyboththe [Link] longtermintentionsofthetrials,whichwereaimingforanoverallmorepeacefulworld,as [Link] selectionofinterviews,itwasintendedasasourceforthegeneralpopulation. Gaeth,[Link].A&ETelevisionNetworks,[Link].6 Oct.2013. ThisprimarysourceisanaudioclipofArthurGaethreportingforCombinedAmerican [Link] indetail.Thesignificantpartofthissourcewerethelaststatementssaidbythe10Naziswho [Link] andhopefulforapeacefulfuture,whileothersareproudandstillstandbyHitlerandtheir [Link] theiractionsandwhohasn'[Link],"Idieinnocently,theverdictwaswrong!" [Link] contextandprimaryquotestouseasevidenceofthereactiontowhatmanyofthedefendants thoughtasunfairtrial. "GermanPolishAgreementofJanurary26,1934."[Link],[Link]. 19Feb.2014. The"GermanPolishAgreement"alsoknownasthe,"GermanPolishNonAggressionPactof 1934,"wasanagreementtoavoidarmedconflictfortenyearsbetweenNaziGermanyandthe [Link] 1,[Link]"TheAtrocitiesofWorldWarTwo"pageof ourwebsite,whereitasusedasanexampleofGermanybreakingagreements(likethisandthe KelloggBriandPactof1928)andwagingaggressivewar. Harris,Whitney."InterviewwithNurembergProsecutorWhitneyHarris:"IHadn'ttheSlightestIdeaof theScaleofGenocide""[Link],18 [Link].22Sept.2013. <[Link] [Link]>. ThisisaninterviewconductedwithoneoftheprosecutorsoftheNurembergtrials,published [Link],hisopinionstendtofavortheAllies'methodsandthe

[Link],andarguesthatthe trialswere"withoutadoubt"[Link] ideologicaldifferencesamongtheAllies,specificcharactertraitsofthedefendants,aswellas [Link] onapublicwebsite,SpiegelOnline,andwasintendedforallofitsreaders. Heath,Trevor."CrimeinRetrospectNuremberg."TheAustralianQuarterly18.8(1946):7781. [Link].11Oct.2013. Thisjournalarticle,publishedbyTrevorHearthwhiletheNurembergTrialswerestillinsession inSeptemberof1946,[Link],heargues thatthesidemorefavorabledependsentirelyuponopinioncraftedby"yourownhabitofmind" andnot"uponlogic."Hemakesseveralargumentsforbothsidesoftheargument, acknowledgingfirstlythatexpostfactolawsviolatelegaltheoryinmanycountries,andlegal [Link]"internationallaw"iscomprisedofthe opinionsof"...FourPowers...ofaworldStatewhichtheyandtheyalonecompromise." However,healsoreferencesthefactthattheAllieshadnotimetocraftlawsbeforethewar, andthatthemoralneedtodealwithoffendersisgreaterthantheneedto"upholdsomevague ethicalprinciples."Incraftinganopiniononthefairnessofthetrials,allofhisargumentsare [Link], hisstatementsontheminparticularhavebeenespeciallyhelpful. [Link] [Link].N.p.:United Nations,[Link] [Link]. <[Link] IndescribingtheprinciplesestablishedbytheNurembergPrinciplesandtheTrials,thisprimary documentfromtheinternationalorganizationoftheUnitedNationsprovidesinsightintothe [Link] documentcanbecomparedtopreviousinternationaltreatyandconventiondocumentstofurther describethedevelopmentininternationallawthattheTrialspresentedcomparedtothe previouslyestablishedlaws. Jackson,RobertH."[Link] MemorialAward."[Link],WashingtonD.C.21 [Link],[Link].5Jan. 2014. <[Link] [Link]>. Writtenin1941,thisaddressbythechiefU.S.prosecutorofthe1945NurembergTrials

describeshisapproachtothedevelopmentofinternationallawandtheinfluencefromhis mentor,JusticeBenjaminCardozo,[Link] addresshisviewpointonthedevelopmentoflawisexpressedbyhisstatementthatfreedoms werecontinuallyprotectedbythedevelopment,notstifling,[Link] broughtwithhimtothedraftingoftheInternationalMilitaryTribunalCharteranditishelpful becauseitultimatelybroughtforththeTrialsandestablishedaneworderofinternationalcriminal justice. Jackson,RobertH."OpeningStatementNurembergTrials,1945."TheNuremberg [Link],[Link] Corporation,[Link].29Sept.2013.<[Link] supremecourt/personality/sources_document12.html>. [Link] [Link] primarydocumenthasgiveninsightintotheframeofmindofthelegalpersonsintheTrialandis helpfulinthefurtherjustificationoftheTrials,whereJacksondescribestheresponsibilitythe [Link],adistorted viewmightcomeaboutasJacksonwastheAmericanChiefProsecutor. Jackson,RobertH."NuremberginRetrospect:LegalAnswertoInternational Lawlessness."AmericanBarAssociationJournal35.10(1949):[Link]. 27Sept.2013. [Link],thechiefUnitedStates [Link],itexplainshowtheAllieswerelegallyjustifiedinholdingthe [Link],asoneoftheAmericanprosecutors,heisforNurembergtrials,andthe [Link],inonepartofthedocument,he statesthateventhecriticsmustadmitthattheNurembergtrialswerevaluablebecausetheyseta [Link],[Link],whosaid,Wemust salutetheNurembergtrialasaguidepostforthefurtherdevelopmentofthelawofnations. AnotherpointwhenhedefendstheNurembergtrialsiswhenhetalksabouttheselectionof [Link],therewerefewneutral countriesleft,andthatformalneutralitywouldnotnecessarilyguaranteetrueneutralityin [Link],sinceAmerica,England,andFranceallhadand independentjudicialtraditionrely[ing]upontheindividualintegrity,detachmentandlearningof thejudgetoshapehisdecisionsratherthanuponthesourceofhiscommission,hisnationalityor hisclass,[Link] Sovietjudges,hestatesthattheSovietjudgealonecouldnotalterthefateofthetrials,andthus [Link],Jacksonwassetondefendingthetrials,and [Link]. Jackson,[Link] [Link]:n.p.,[Link].

29Sept.2013.<[Link] Thisprimarydocumentwasprivatelysubmittedasareporttothegovernmentin1945,andnot releasedtothepublicuntilFebruary,[Link],Jacksonreportsontheeventsand [Link] conference,aswellasthecompromisesmadeinregardtothetrials'[Link] providesawindowintolegaldiscrepanciesthatlargelyexistedbetweentheUSandUK,and [Link],andheexplainsthat [Link],the [Link] defendantsshouldbeallowedtopresentevidenceandtestifyarose,theyweregiventhebenefits [Link],andin [Link], Jacksonalsoprovidesspecificinformationregardingtheagreedupondefinitionsofcrimes,the positiononpleasof"actsofstate,"privilegesofthedefendants,[Link] factthatJacksonworkedfortheUSgovernmentmustbenoted,asthismakesitmore necessarytodeterminewhetherparticularstatementsarebiased. "TheKelloggBriandPact,1928."[Link],n.d. Web.14Oct.2013. ThisprimarysourceistheKelloggBriandPact,whichwasagreementoftherenunciationof [Link],including Germany,[Link] [Link] timesasavalidreasontoindicttheNazisbytheNurembergtrialssupporters,includingin NuremberginRetrospect:LegalAnswertoInternationalLawlessness,byJusticeJackson. However,criticsofthetrialsalsopointoutthatthispactwasviolatedseveraltimesbythe SovietUnionaswell,[Link] anessentialpartofourproject,sinceitcoulddictatewhetherornottheindictmentoftheNazis waslegallyviable. "MoscowDeclarationonAtrocitiesbyPresidentRoosevelt,[Link], IssuedonNovember1,1943."[Link].N.p.,[Link].19Feb.2014. Commonlyknownasthe"MoscowDeclarationof1943,"itsformalnameis,"Declarationof theFourNationsonGeneralSecurity."ItwassignedattheMoscowConferenceby representativesfromtheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,andSovietUnion,wheretheyclaimed [Link] thisDeclaration,aswellasalinktothefulltext,isfeaturedonthe,"AtrocitiesofWorldWar Two"pageunderthe"Condemnation"section. "MotionAdoptedByAllDefenseCounsel,19November1945."[Link] University,[Link].19Feb.2014.

Thisstatement,readatNurembergonthenineteenthofNovember,1945,wasdeliveredbyDr. [Link] [Link],hediscussessomeofthemajor failuresoftheprosecution'[Link]"Defense"pageofourwebsite,wespecifically referenceaquotebyStahmerwhichcriticizestheAllies'expostfactolawuse,whichhe considerstobeaviolationofthe"greatfundamentalprinciplesofthepoliticalsystems" possessedbythesignatoriesoftheCharterfortheTribunal. "ANONAGGRESSIONPACT."SundayTimes(Perth,WA:19021954)28Jan1934:1 Section:[Link].6Jan2014<[Link] ThisarticleinanAustralianNewspaperisaprimarysourcewrittendirectlyafterthe [Link] dependsontheKelloggBriandPactcondemnationofwarasanationalpolicy,thisarticleis insightfulinbuildingthecontextofwhichwarandinternationallawwereregardedtobefore [Link],thissourcecanbeusedtounderstandhowunderdeveloped internationallawwasatthatpointbecauseofGermanyseventualinvasionofPolandin1939. [Link]:NurembergWarCrimesTrial. Web.12Oct.2013. ThissourceprovidedinformationonthebasicRulesofProcedurefortheNurembergTrials. ThissourcehelpsustoaddresshowfairtheIMT'[Link] thattheIMTmadeseveraleffortstogivethedefendantsasmuchopportunitytodefend themselvesastheymightreceiveinanyofthecountries'[Link] rules,itwasrequiredthatdefendantswerereceivecopiesoftheirindictmentsandotherofficial paperstranslatedintoalanguagetheyunderstoodatleast30daysbeforetheirtrial [Link],ortoreceiveeither [Link] documents,[Link] addition,[Link] wasoriginallypublishedjustfortheIMT,itallowsustoseehowthetrialswerestructured,and howmuchofanefforttheIMTwastrulymakingtocreateatrialenvironmentthatwasfairto thedefendants,whethertheywereactuallytryingtoallowthemagenuinetrialorjustpointona showofvindictivejustice.

"NurembergWarCrimesTrial:RulesofProcedure."TheAvalonProject:NurembergWarCrimes Trial:RulesofProcedure.N.p.,[Link].16Nov.2013. Thisdocument,establishedbytheCharterfortheTribunalandadoptedonthe29thof October,1945,[Link],it

discussestherequirementofadefendanttotakeanoathormakeadeclarationcustomaryin theirowncountry,[Link],it acknowledgesthattheTribunalhastherighttomakechangestotherulesatanytime"inthe interestoffairandexpeditioustrials." PrinciplesofInternationalLawRecognizedintheCharteroftheNurembergTribunalandin theJudgmentoftheTribunal.1950:n.p.,[Link].05Oct.2013. <[Link] ThisPrimarysourceisthefirstpublicationrecognizingtheprinciplesofinternationallaw [Link],anddistinguishedseveral [Link]"anyperson who...commitsacrimeunderinternationallawis...liabletopunishment"andthatan internationalcrimecanbecommittedevenifaninternalcrimeisnotbeingcommitted. Additionally,itstatesthataGovernmentofficialisstillresponsiblefortheirinternationalcrimes, [Link] veryclearlyshowsthat,despitethefactthatmanyofthedefendantstriedwereGovernment officialsoractingunderdirectordersfromthosewhowere,thatdidnotexemptthemfrom responsibilityintheeyesoftheIMT.Thisdocumentwaspublishedin1950,andisavailableto thepublic. "PunishmentandPreventionofWarCrimes."HumanandCivilRights:EssentialPrimary [Link],BrendaWilmothLerner,[Link]. Detroit:Gale,[Link].12Sept.2013. ThisprimarysourcewaspublishedbytheLeagueofNationsonOctober10,[Link] waswrittenbeforetheNurembergTrialstookplace,thisdocumentgivesbackground [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link] sourcegivesapreviewofthebiasthatlettowhatsomethoughttobeimproperexecutionsof justice. "PunishmentofWarCriminals."CrimeandPunishment:[Link].K. [Link]:Gale,[Link]. Web.12Sept.2013. [Link] aprimarysource,[Link],asthe documentwaswrittenbytheIMT,andtheIMTonly,itcouldbeinclinedtorepresenttheAllied powersinafavorablelight,andcouldbeskimmingoverinformationthatcouldprovethe [Link]

trialofHermannGoering,[Link] indictedon,theevidenceagainsthim(thereislittleevidenceforhimincludedinthedocument), andtheverdict(guilty).Thedocumentprovidesaviewintotheevidenceusedforindictmentby theIMT. "RomeStatuteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt."EncyclopediaofGenocideandCrimes [Link]:MacmillanReferenceUSA, [Link].12Sept.2013. [Link] wasn'tadopteduntilJuly17th1998anditwasn'tenacteduntilJuly1st2002,thisdocumentstill containsimportantevidenceinthelegality,orthelackofit,[Link] documentenactsapermanentinternationalcourtsimilartotheInternationalMiliraryTribunal. Alsoincludedaredefinitionsofgencoide,[Link] thedocumentsthatenactedtheinternationallawsthatwereusedintheNurembergTrials,lack [Link] defendantswhichdirectlytiesthisinformationtothetheme. Smith,Willis."TheNurembergTrials."AmericanBarAssociationJournal32.7(1946): [Link].27Sept.2013. TheNurembergTrials,writtenbyWillisSmithfortheAmericanBarAssociationJournalis [Link] [Link],isrepresentingan Americanassociation,andispublishinginanAmericanjournal,hecouldbemorebiasedforthe [Link],becauseitisaprimarysource,itshouldstill [Link],Smith spendsafairamountoftimediscussingthetechnologyatthetrialsthatallowsthelanguagesto [Link],hestatesthathehasnodoubtthatthedecisions madewillbeasfairandasjustashumanintelligence,uponitshighestplane,canproduce, [Link],sayingthatitisuniqueinitseffortsto [Link] defendantstobecharged,asking,Cantherebeanycontentionthatthoseacts[thecrimesof thedefendants]wereinaccordwithcivilization?Healsodefendsthetrialsagainstthecriticism [Link],itisclearthatSmithseesthetrialsasjustand necessary,afactthatisnotsurprising,consideringthefactthatheisAmerican. Sprecher,[Link]:AProsecutor'[Link].1. Lantham,MD:UniversityofAmerica,[Link]. [Link],whowasa [Link]'saccountwassplitbetweentwobooks,withthisfirst volumefocusingmainlyontheeventsleadingupthetrial,aswellasthepresentationsmadeby theprosecution,[Link] informationonnearlyeveryfacetofthetrials,andhelpedtoprovideinformationinthe

recountingofevents,actions,[Link] authoritativefirsthandquotesthatwecoulduseincommunicatingideasonourwebsite. StatementonAtrocities.N.p.:n.p.,[Link].29Sept.2013. <[Link] Thisstatement,jointlysignedbyPresidentRoosevelt,PrimeMinisterChurchillandPremier StalinisaprimarysourcepublishedaspartoftheMoscowConference'sJointFourNation DeclarationfromOctober,[Link] alliedgovernmentswhichstatesthatallNazipartymembers,oranyonewhohasbeen responsiblefortakingaconsentingpartinthe"atrocities,massacresandexecutions"stated earlierinthedocumentwouldbejudgedandpunishedbythecountriesinwhichtheircrimes [Link] committedcrimes,andonewiththeintentionofdissuadinganyoneelsetojointheranksofthe [Link] trials,however,becauseitclaimsGermansoldierswhotakepart[inshootingorexecuting officers,hostaged,orpeasants]willknowtheywillbebroughtbacktothesceneoftheir crimesandjudgedonthespotbythepeopleswhomtheyhaveoutraged. Stresemann,Gustav."TheNewGermany."[Link],Norway.29June [Link].NobelMediaAB2013,[Link].5Jan. 2014. <[Link] StresemannsNobelPrizelectureprovidesfirsthandperspectiveontheaftermathofGermany [Link] [Link] bytheAlliesandwasessentialinunderstandingthenormallyvagueconceptofvictorsjustice. Aconceptwhichwasimportantinunderstandingtheinternationalandlegalcontextforpostwar actionsbeforeWorldWarIIandtheNurembergTrials. Taylor,[Link]:[Link]:Knopf, [Link]. TheAnatomyoftheNurembergTrialsisaprimarysourcebook(orastheauthorcallsit,a personalmemoir)[Link], [Link] Alliedside,thebookisquiteimpartial,goingintogreatdepthaboutsomeofthefaultsofthe NurembergTrials(aswellasitsaccomplishments).And,althoughTaylorchoosestocallthe sourceapersonalmemoir,itprovidesextremelyvaluableinformationonthepointsofviewof otherindividualsinvolvedinthetrials,includingmanyoftheotherjusticesandtheprosecuted Nazis.

Taylor,Telford."TheNurembergWarCrimesTrials:AnAppraisal."ProceedingsoftheAcademyof PoliticalScience23.3(1949):[Link].11Oct.2013. ThisisajournalarticlewrittenbyTelfordTaylor,anAmericanprosecutorattheNuremberg Trials.Itwaswrittenin1949,[Link],hediscusses thetopicsofstudytheNurembergTrialshavecreatedforscholarsoflaw,science,andpolitical science,[Link],hecouldcertainlybe consideredbiasedtotheAllies'benefit,andassuchhedidnothesitatetoblatantlyreferto Germandoctorsas"stupid"forconsideringthattastemightbewhatmadesaltwaterpoisonous [Link],hisspeculationon whetheritwastrulyaccuratefordefendantstopleadnecessityorduresswasrelevanttoour [Link],too,washisassertionthat,"Fromtheoutset,thefundamentalprincipleofall warcrimestrials,atNurembergandelsewhere,hasbeenthattheyareajudicialprocessforthe enforcementoflawwhichisbindingonallmen."AstheintentionsoftheAllieswiththe conductingoftheTrialsisoneofourcentralconsiderations,aprimaryopiniononthesubjectis certainlyaconstructiveonetohave. [Link]'[Link]. Web.4Dec.2013.<[Link] PresidentWilsonsFourteenPointspresentstheidealisticvisionofwhattheLeagueof NationswasmeanttobeandoffersthecontextinwhichtheLeaguewastobeintermsof [Link] authoritywhichultimatelyfailedinpreventingWorldWarIIwasimportanttounderstnadinits firstadvocates,Wilsons,[Link] NurembergTrialsintheworldofinternationallawbybeingthestructureandcontexttheTrials foundthemselvesinduringthedraftingoftheIMT. "TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights."[Link],[Link].12 Nov.2013. TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsisaprimarysourcethatwasadoptedbytheUNon December10,[Link] [Link],liberty andthesecurityofpersonwithoutdistinctionofanykindincludingreligion,raceandpoliticalor [Link] Trials. [Link]. Vol.78.N.p.:UnitedNations,[Link].14Dec.2013. TheConventiononthePreventionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocideisanextremely

[Link] NurembergTrialsanditscontentsdefinerightsandresponsibilitiesregardingthetopicof genocide.InArticles1,2,and3thetermgenocideisclearlydefinedestablishingandprotecting rightsofthosewhomaybesubjectedtothiscrime.InArticles5,8,and12createa [Link],similartothe InternationalMilitaryTribunal,[Link] primarysourceishelpfulinmappingthelegacyoftheNurembergTrials.

Secondary(52) "AboutICTR."[Link],[Link].04Jan.2014. <[Link] ThisarticlecomesfromtheofficialwebsitefortheInternationalCriminalTribunalforRwanda, [Link] containsinformationabouttheICTR,includingtheoriginsofthetribunal,theaimsofthetrials, [Link] websiteoftheInternationalCriminalTribunalforRwanda,itisprobablyverybiased,not includinganyinformationthatwouldbeantagonistictowardtheICTR. "AbouttheICTY."[Link],[Link]. 04Jan.2014.<[Link] [Link] afterNuremberg,[Link] theICTY,[Link] websitefortheInternationalCriminalTribunalfortheformerYugoslavia,itwillmostdefinitely bebiased,onlystatingthepositivesabouttheICTY,andnotanyproblemsorissuesthatit mighthavehad. AdolfEichmannTrial:1961."[Link]:GaleResearch,[Link] [Link].12Sept.2013. ThisisasecondarysourceaboutthetrialofAdolfEichmann,whichwasconductedabout fifteenyearsaftertheNurembergtrialsofficiallyended,inIsrael,acountrythatwasnonexistent [Link],thiscouldcausethissourcetopossiblybelessrelevant [Link] couldhavebeenpresentattheactualtrials,whichisamajorcomponentofourtopic. However,[Link],itdoesnottakeapointof vieworopinionaboutit,asitonlyincludesfacts. Barrett,[Link].2Jan.2014.

[Link] [Link] andwithhisspecializationinJacksonandlaw,Barrettwasextremelyhelpfulinunderstanding [Link] InternationalMilitaryTribunalCharterandthelegalidealsthattheytookintotheprecedent [Link] toourunderstandingofthelawbehindtheTrials. Bass,J,Gary.."Atrocity&legalism."Daedalus1(2003):[Link].06Oct.2013. Inframingtheconnectionbetweeninternationaljusticeandmilitaryforce,Bassa professorofpoliticsandinternationalaffairsatPrincetonUniversityprovides historicalcontextincomparingtheexecutionofinternationaljusticeduringWorldWarI,World WarII,[Link] responsibilityofenactingjusticeonaninternationalscaletoitsfeasibilitywithbruteforce. Producedpurelyforacademicreasons,thissource,whileitdoesbackthenecessityofforcefor internationaljusticetooccur,containsevidenceandregardseventswithfacts. Bassiouni,[Link],[Link],andYasuakiOnuma."Nuremberg:FortyYears After."AmericanSocietyofInternationalLaw80(1986):[Link].13 Oct.2013. Nuremberg:[Link] isbrokenintothreemainsections,eachwrittenbyBassiouni,Falk,[Link] examinesboththemoralethicallegacy,andthesecond(andmoreimportant)whichexamines [Link] [Link],itstatesthatthedefenseofobediencetosuperiororderswasoften acceptedpriortotheTrials,[Link] theParisPact(theKelloggBriandPact)andtheLocarnoPactwerenotadequatetosatisfya [Link],the sourcedoescontendthattheNurembergTrialsdidrelativelywellintermsofprocedural [Link]"victors'vengeance"with referencetoalegalframework,butnotwithareferencetoamoralethicalone,whichisavery [Link],hedifferentiatesbetweenNurembergs [Link] anewframeworkforthebehaviorofgovernmentsinrelationtowarandpeace,andinrelation [Link],suchasthe lackofanylawagainstnuclearweapons(sincetheAllieshadusedthese).Falkstatesthatthe creationoftheillusionwasduetopostwaroptimism,andalsotogivetheNurembergtrialsa senseofjustice,sothattheapparentprecedentthatthetrialswereclaimedtohaveset [Link],says,Falk,thetrueeffectofthe [Link] previoustwo,andstatesthatthelegacyofNuremberginastrictlegalsenseisrather [Link],and alsolooksathoweffectivetheNurembergtrialsreallywereatsettingaprecedentforfuture

internationallaw,whichwasoneoftheresponsibilitiesthattheAlliesweresupposedlyfulfilling withthetrials. Biddiss,Michael."Victors'justice?TheNurembergtribunal."HistoryToday.01May.1995: [Link].06Oct.2013. ThissourcedescribesthedifficultyofsettinguptheInternationalMilitaryTribunaltoprosecute [Link] involvementoftheUSSR,thecrimesbytheAllies,andthelackofprecedenceforthechargeof conspiracyweredescribedtoapproachtheviewoftheTrailsasaformofVictorsJusticein [Link] viewsabouttherightthattheAllieshadinprosecutingonthechargeofconspiracyandthe flawsinthecourtprocedures. Cronkite,[Link]:History's [Link],[Link]. WalterCronkite,afamedCBSreporter,doesthispieceonaspecialseriescalledWalter Cronkite:history'[Link] [Link] ofhisreports,clipsofGoeringandothersintrial,[Link] famousAmericanattorneywhogaveaspeechattheTownMeetinginFebruaryof1944,which thereadingsarefrom,andwroteabook,[Link] [Link] [Link]'sreasoningbehindan internationalcommissionholdingtrialsbylookingbackontheoutcomeofWorldWarOne.

"DefendantsintheMajorWarFiguresTrial."UMKC,[Link].18Dec.2013. Thiswebsite,createdbytheUniversityofMissouriKansasCity,isasecondarysourcethat [Link] usefulforitsquotebyAlfredJodl,whowastheChiefofOperationsfortheGermanHigh [Link],heclaimsthathewasshockedbymanyoftheaccusations madeincourt,[Link] "DefenseofSuperior"ordersectionofour"Controversy"page.

Drumbl,Mark,andMelissaBlock."Nuremberg'sLegacy,60YearsLater."AllThings [Link].05Oct.2013. <[Link] [Link] moderngenocideprosecutions,andrelatesthemtostatementsabouttheNurembergTrials

[Link] (especiallyinthecasesoftheHolocaust)werejobspaidbystate,andthatcommittingcrimes [Link] andmoredauntingthaninternationalthreattoanindividualplayintoansweringthequestionof [Link] alsosaysthattheNurembergTrialsalonewerenotenoughto"reconstructshatteredsocieties." PublishedonNPR,thiswasintendedforageneralandpublicaudience. Feltman,BrianK."Legitimizingjustice:theAmericanpressandtheInternationalMilitary Tribunal,19451946."TheHistorian66.2(2004):300+.WorldHistoryInContext. Web.12Sept.2013. Thissecondarysource,[Link],delvesintothesignificancethatthepressbrought [Link] intheIMTandJackson'sgoalofholdingandimpartialtrialfocusedondefendingtherightsof [Link] achievementinhistoryandthereforethissourceisextremelyhelpfulinunderstandingthatside. AtthesametimeitrecognizesthecriticsthatbelievetheNurembergTrialswereaprime exampleofvictor'[Link] argumentandexplorestheideathatthetrialsweremoreinfluentialonthefutureofinternational lawthantheindividualverdictsandthecrimescommittedintheHolocaust. Ferencz,Benjamin."TheHolocaustandtheNurembergTrials."UNChronicleDec.2005:26+. [Link].14Oct.2013. ThisarticleshowsthecontroversybetweentheintentionsofheadprosecutorJacksonandthe [Link]. Jacksonsaid,"Wemustneverforgetthattherecordonwhichwejudgethesedefendantstoday istherecordonwhichhistorywilljudgeustomorrow."TheAlliesandspecificallyJacksonfeltit wastheirresponsibilitytoholdafairtrialsyetoneofthefourcountsthatthedefendantswere [Link],aftertheGeneralAssemblyof theUNin1946,wasdeemedaninternationalcrimechangingfrombeinganinternationalright. ThissourcedirectlyconnectstothethemeforitshowsevidenceofwhatJacksonthoughthis responsibilitywasandatthesametimesomeoftherightsthatweretakenawayfromthe defendants. Fichtelberg,Aaron."FairTrialsandInternationalCourts:ACriticalEvaluationoftheNuremberg Legacy."CriminalJusticeEthics28.1(2009):[Link].8Oct.2013. InthisarticleFichtelbergdelvesintonotwhethertheNurembergtrialswerefairornot,but ratherwhyiswasimportantthattherewasafairtrialratherthanashowtrial,assuggestedby Stalin,orimmediateexecution,[Link] thereasonsofattributingblame,tellingthestorysoitcanbeunderstoodbythegeneralpublic andrestoringthecommunitymaybereasonforafairtrialinadomesticsetting,thesamedoes

[Link] leadersoftheeventswhilelettingthemajoritypeoplewhoactuallypulledthetriggerwalkfree. Tellingthestory,Fichtelbergargues,isnotthejobofaninternationalcourt.,butrathertheirjob [Link],thepointofaninternational [Link] [Link],the onlyargumentinfavorofmakinginternationaltrials,suchasNuremberg,fairissothatthetrial [Link] significantbecauseithelpsshapeourunderstandingofinternationallawandfairtrialsversus [Link]'sargumentalsoconnectstothethemeof responsibilityashismainarguementisthattheAllieshadtheresponsibilitytobearolemodelof democracytoothercountries Finch,GeorgeA."TheSignificanceoftheNurembergTrials."ProceedingsoftheSectionof InternationalandComparativeLaw(AmericanBarAssociation)(1946):[Link]. Web.12Oct.2013.<[Link] ThisargumentpublishedbytheAmericanBarAssociationexaminestheclaimofactingunder ordersbythedefendantsandthelegalauthorityandtherightstheAlliesheldafterGermanys [Link],thissecondarysourceprovides informationaboutthehistoricalsignificanceoftheTrialsinthedevelopmentofthedefinitionof aggressionbythenewlyformedUnitedNations.Writtenin1946,thewidersignificanceofthe TrialsconnectiontothedevelopmentoftheUnitedNationsisunabletobewhollyanalyzed. Finch,GeorgeA."SuperiorOrdersandWarCrimes."TheAmericanJournalofInternational Law15.3(1921):[Link].27Oct.2013. <[Link] WrittenafterWorldWar1,FinchdescribesintheAmericanJournalofInternationalLaw thesituationofthesuperiorordersdefense,examiningtheclaimandopposingviewpoints throughmultiplecourtcases,[Link] sourceprovidescontexttoclaimofthedefenseduringtheNurembergTrials,asthereare conflictingviewsofwhethertheAllieshadtherighttoholdindividualsaccountableforthe crimesoftheNaziParty. Glueck,[Link]:[Link],1946. Print. InthisbookGlueckarguesthelegalityofthewagingofaggressivewarcountintheNuremberg [Link], [Link] sourceissignificantforitaddressesbothsidesoftheargumentofthelegalityofthiscount. Glueckcoverstheoppositionthatmarksthiscountasretroactiveandthengoesontoarguethat [Link],Glueckdelvesintothequestionof whetherindividualscanbepunishedwhentheprecedingdocumentsmadeaggressivewara

[Link] hisorhercriminalactioninregardstointernationallawthentheindividualcannolongerhide [Link] importantinunderstandingthecontroversyofthelegalityofthecountsintheNurembergTrials aswellasunderstandingwhatpastdocumentsareapplicabletointernationallawatthetime. Goldensohn,Leon,[Link]:AlfredA. Knopf,[Link]. Thisprimarysourcebookcontainsabridgedinterviewswithdefendantsandwitnessesofthe Nurembergtrials,[Link] personalinterviewsandpsychiatricanalyses,italsocontainsanintroduction(secondarysource) [Link] andconductofthetrials,aswellasrelevantspeculationaboutthemotivationsofdifferent nationsforholdingthetrials,[Link] thisintroductionisincrediblyhelpfulinitsattentiontofinedetail,anddiscussionoftheincentives foreachnationtocallforsummaryexecutionsandlegitimatetrials,[Link] pointstoseveralotherprimarysourcedocuments,whichprovidedsomedirectionforfurther readingintoevenmoredetail. Goldstone,RichardJ."WorldPeacethroughJusticeAwardlecture."WashingtonUniversity GlobalStudiesLawReview8.4(2009):619+.[Link].12 Sept.2013. [Link],whowaspresentattheNuremberg [Link],Goldstonechoosestofocusonthelegacyofthe [Link] [Link] focusesonthesignificanceoftheeffectsoftheNurembergTrials. Goodheart,A.L."QuestionsandAnswersconcerningtheNurembergTrials."TheInternationalLaw Quarterly1.4(1947):[Link].11Oct.2013. Inthisjournalarticle,Goodheart,whowasspokenbothacademicallyandnonacademicallyon thetrials,[Link] [Link] thetrialswerefairforthefactthatdefendantscouldsupplyevidence,judgeshadtojustifytheir verdicts,andintheend,[Link] theimportanteffectsofthetrials,butmostrelevanttoourprojectwashisdiscussionofexpost [Link](whichwerelongestablished) [Link],heexplainsthatex postfactolawscanonlybeconsideredunreasonableorunfairwhentheircriminalityisunclear [Link],heargued, genocidalcrimesandtheslaughteringofmillionsofinnocentswereobviouslycriminaleven

beforetheIMTmadeitthemlegallyso. "ICCAbouttheCourt."[Link],[Link].04Jan.2014. <[Link] [Link]>. [Link] generalinformationontheInternationalCriminalCourtandtheRomeStatute,includingthedate thattheStatutewasadopted,thedatethatitofficiallywentintoforce(byratification),and [Link] theofficialwebsiteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt,itisprobablyverybiased,anddoesnot includeanyinformationthatisnegativetowardsthetrials "TheInfluenceOfTheNurembergTrialOnInternationalCriminalLaw."[Link] [Link],[Link].02Jan.2014. <[Link] oberthjackson/theinfluenceofthenurembergtrialoninternationalcriminallaw/>. [Link]'swebsite(butwasnot actuallywrittenbyJackson,makingitasecondarysource).Thesourcegoesintotheinfluence thatNuremberghadoninternationalcriminallawandthedocuments,conventions,and [Link] Nurembergtrials,thengoesontoothertribunalsanddocumentsthatwereestablishedbecause [Link]. Jacksonswebsite,itmightbeproAllies,andviewtheNurembergtrialsinamuchmore positivelightandmasktheinadequacies,butstillisaextremelyusefulsourceinfiguringoutthe influenceofNuremberg. "InternationalLaw."EuropeSince1914:EncyclopediaoftheAgeofWarandReconstruction. [Link]:CharlesScribner'sSons,2006. [Link].12Sept.2013. ProvidingaconciseoverviewofthehistoryofinternationallawinEurope,thispublic,secondary sourcefromtheestablisheddatabaseofWorldHistoryInContextprovidesinformationabout thedifferentsectionsofinternationallawandthetreatiesandconventionsthatenactedthem. ThishelpsinpiecingtogetherthecontextofinternationallawpriortoWorldWarIIandwillhelp examinethelegalsituationspresentedintheaftermathofthewarwithregardtopreviously institutedlegalcustoms. KesslerHarris,Alice."FromRetributiontoRestoration."TheWomen'sReviewof Books16.6(1999):[Link].5Jan.2014.

<[Link] ThissourceisareviewofMarthaMinowsbookexaminingtheresponseaftermassviolence andgenocide,[Link] coursesofactionthatMinowproposesasawaytoreacttotheaftermathofcollectiveviolence undertakenbylargeorganizationsorgovernmentsandproposesthatMinowincludeadeeper examinationthroughtheperspectiveofvictimsthatcontinuetobeshamedandpsychologically tormentedbytheircommunities,[Link] theplightofthevictimsandreceivingjusticethroughlegaltribunalsortruthcommissions. Ultimatelythissourcewashelpfulinprovidinganinsightfulperspectiveonthevictimsandhow theycanbeaffecteddifferentlythroughthesepostviolenceresponses. Lang,Jr,AnthonyF."CrimeandPunishment:HoldingStatesAccountable."Ethics& InternationalAffairs2(2007):[Link].06Oct.2013. Inacknowledgingtheambiguityofinternationaljusticeinholdingstatesorindividuals accountable,Lang,[Link],isabletoexaminethestructures necessaryforanenvironmentforeitherholdingindividualsorstatesaccountableforcrimes [Link] [Link],thewayinwhichthe conflictinggoalsofstateswouldaffectthepersonorentitythatwouldbeprosecuted. Mallard,WilliamD.,Jr."NurembergAStepForward?"InternationalLawyer4.4(1970): [Link]. [Link] iswaspublishedalongtimeago,thatdoesnotmeanthatitisunusable,asitstillprovides [Link] thecredibilityofcallingaggressivewaracrimetoindicttheGermans,whetherinternational lawsshouldapplytonationsorindividuals,thefactthatmanyofthelawsusedtoconvictthe defendantswereexpostfactolaws,andthedefensethattheindividualsintrialwerejust [Link], butmoreoftenagainstnationsthanindividualsandthatthedefensethatadefendantwasjust [Link], hestatesthateventhoughtheAlliescouldhavepossiblydoneunfairtrials,theywereabletoat theveryleastreplacethecommonvengeanceandsummaryexecutionsthatfollowedwarwith somesortoflaw. Marrus,MichaelR."TheNurembergtrial:fiftyyearsafter."TheAmericanScholar66.4(1997): 563+.[Link].6Oct.2013. Inthisarticle,MichealMarrusarguesthatwhiletheNurembergTrialsweren'tlegallyperfect,

[Link] [Link] andwhycriticsoftoday'[Link] therightsofthedefendantsmayhavebeennotfullyappreciatedduetoexpostfactolawandtu quoque,[Link] alsoarguesthatduetotheGerman'sunconditionalsurrendertheAllieshadtherighttodealwith [Link],thedefendantsshould [Link] sourceputstheNurembergTrialsincontextasMarrustriestolookpasttheimperfectionsto presentanargumentthatencompassesthepositivehistoricalsignificanceofthisevent. Minow,[Link]:facinghistoryaftergenocide [Link]:BeaconPress,[Link]. Minow,DeanofHarvardsLawSchool,expertlyweavestogetherthemultipleforcesinvolved inpostwarjusticeinherdeepandclearanalysisoftheactionsofpeople,governmentsand [Link] understandingthelegacyofinternationaltribunalsthatcarriedonafterthelandmarkNuremberg Trialsanddifferingconflictsandpostwaractionswereexamined. Neff,StephenC."AShortHistoryofInternationalLaw."[Link]. [Link],[Link]. ProfessorStephenNeffoutlinestheimportantpointsinthehistoryofinternationallaw, spanningfromthefirstdefinitionstheterminternationallawentailedandthroughtothe [Link] theNurembergTrialswereheldunder,inadditionwiththeprecedentstheTrialsbrought byactingasabroadandsubstantialtextofhistoricaldescriptionsofinternationallaw. "Nuremberg'sLegacy,60YearsLater."[Link] [Link],Robert Siegel,[Link]. [Link].2Dec.2013. <[Link] MarkDrumbl,professoroflawatWashingtonandLeeUniversity,provideshisargumentabout [Link] theTrials,suchasinRwandaandtheformerYugoslavia,Drumblarguesthattheidealsof individualpunishmentestablishedbytheTrialshavefailedtodeterviolencebroughtonbythe statebytheindividual,[Link]

Nurembergslegacyandinsoprovidesadifferingperspectiveontheresponsibilitiesthatthe Trialsestablished. "TheNurembergTrials."[Link] #[Link],Boston,30Jan. [Link].6Oct.2013. <[Link] Thisfilm,whichwasaccessedasatranscript,containedspeciallywrittennarration,clipsfrom thetrials,[Link] focuses,[Link], includingMarthaMinow'sstatementthattheAlliesagreed,"Itisnodefensetomurdertosay thatotherpeoplearemurdered."Alsodiscussedistherefusalofsomedefendantstoaccept blame,Gring'sinsistencethathisactionswereindefenseofhishomeland,andthatGringand hiswifethoughthewouldbesentencedtoapunishment"morebefittinghisrank"thandeathby [Link] astheywere,andthatmanyclaimed(andmostlikelytrulybelieved)thattheyshouldnotbe consideredguiltybecausetheywereactingunderordersofstatewhentheircrimeswere committed. "TheNurembergTrials."[Link],n.d. Web.12Sept.2013.<[Link] [Link] providesshortoverviewsofthreeprominentdatesrelatedtothetrials:whenthecharterofthe IMTwasannounced,theindictmentofleadingNazis,andwhentheverdictwasgiven. However,itisnotanespeciallydetailedsource,[Link] documentintendedforthegeneralpublic. Overy,Richard."MakingJusticeatNuremberg19451946."[Link],17Feb.2011. Web.29Sept.2013. [Link],the authorofthisarticle,[Link] thattheInternationalMilitaryTribunalarbitrarilychosethedefendants,pointsoutthatthecrimes accusedwherenotcrimesatthetimeofaction,andarguesthattheprosecutionteamwas [Link] attemptedinupholdingtherightsofthedefendants,[Link] [Link] theAllieshadaresponsibilitytopunishthewarcriminalshedoesnotthinkthatthewaythe [Link] [Link] relationshipstheothercountrieskeptquietaboutthecrimescommitedbytheSovietRegime. OveryarguesthatGoeringwasrightinhisquotewrittenonhisindictmentstatement,"'Thevictor willalwaysbethejudgeandthevanquishedtheaccused.'"

Paust,JordanJ.,andTelfordTaylor."[Introduction]."ProceedingsoftheAnnualMeeting (AmericanSocietyofInternationalLaw)80(1986):[Link].12Oct. 2013. Thissource,hastwoseparatesections,onecalledRemarksbytheChairman,[Link] [Link],hewritesabouttheeffect oftheNurembergtrials,andhowtheycreatedasenseofneedtocomplytointernationallaws, [Link] increasingattentionpaidtocrimesofaggressionandcrimesthatgoagainsthumanrightsafter [Link] future,[Link],hemainlywrites abouttheLondonCharterof1945,whatheclaimswastheessentialdocumentinexpanding [Link],theKelloggBriandpact,whichisoften usedtodefendthelegitimacyofthetrials,didnotfullycauseaggressivewartobethoughtofas acrime,sincein1944,[Link]. Telfordssectionofthedocumentisimportantbecauseitprovidessomestrong counterargumentsforsomeproNurembergstatements,especiallyonesaboutthe KelloggBriandpact,whichisreferencedseveraltimesbyJusticeJacksonhimself,thatshould beexaminedcarefully. Picart,CarolineJoanS."AttemptingtoGoBeyondForgetting:TheLegacyoftheTokyoIMTand CrimesofViolenceAgainstWomen."U.ofPennsylvaniaEastAsiaLawReview7 (n.d.):[Link].2Jan.2014. ThissecondarysourcespeaksabouttheTokyoWarCrimesTrialsthattookplaceafterWorld [Link],Picartgoesintomuchdepthintothe relationshipbetweentheTokyoWarCrimesTrials,especiallyemphasizingthedifferencesinthe [Link],shedoesconcedethat theNurembergTrialsandtheIntenationalMilitaryTribunaldiddirectlyimpactandinspirethe TokyoWarCrimesTrialsandtheTokyoIMT,althoughthetwotrialsandtribunalsmayhave [Link],itis muchmorelikelytobeimpartialthensomeprimarysources,becausetheauthorismorelikely tobemoredetachedfromthewholeissue. Podgers,James."RememberingNuremberg."ABAJournal79.10(1993):[Link]. 4Oct.2013. ThisarticleisasecondarysourcewrittenbyJamesPodgers,alawyerandassistanteditorofthe [Link],aprosecutoratthetrials,and,accordingto thearticle,[Link] theTrialsimportance,particularlythenewconceptofillegalaggressivewar,whichtheTrials [Link],[Link]

ofthemostinterestingonesisofJusticeJacksonsshortcomings,whichcouldprovideevidence thatanswersthequestionofthelegalityofthetrials,[Link],Justice Jacksonwas,accordingtoTaylor,unabletoputhim[Goering]onthecarpetwhile [Link] notachievedneatly,statingthattheKelloggBriandPact,whichisoftencitedasevidencefor theillegalityofaggressivewar,didnotactuallystatethataggressioninwarwasillegalunder [Link],PodgersaddsinthateventheUNhasyettoofficiallycallitacrime. ThissourceisimportantbecauseitintroducesTelford,anAmericanwhoexperiencedthe Nurembergtrials,andwouldobviouslyhaveabitofbiastowardstheAllies,butcanstilladmit [Link] aresponsibilitytosetaprecedent,hestillseeshowthisresponsibilitymighthavebeen underminedbyimperfectionsoftheTrials. Post,Ted."TheTrialoftheCentury."Editorial.Newsweek6Nov.1995:[Link].5Oct. 2013. Thisarticle,publishedinNewsweekin1995,[Link],Ted Post,bringsupseveralquotesfromtheChiefAmericanProsecutor,RobertJackson,thatin [Link] [Link] [Link],heincludesthequotefrom Jacksonthatchallengesthismindset,"Ifyouweretosayofthesementhattheyarenotguilty,it wouldbeastruetosaytherehasbeennowar,therearenoslain,therehasbeennocrime." Thisaddressesthedifficultconflictoverwhetherperformingthetrialswasunfairandunjustto thedefendants,andwhetherchoosingnottoholdthemwouldbejustasunfairandunjusttoall ofthosewhowerevictimsoftheircrimes. Radin,Max."JusticeatNuremberg."ForeignAffairs24.3(1946):[Link].13Oct. 2013.<[Link] Theauthor,Radin,examinesthepartsoftheargumentsagainsttheTrials,focusingonthe [Link] alsoexaminingthespecificchargesagainstthedefendantsandhowlawandpublicopinion affectedtheinterpretationandphilosophiesoflaw,thisarticlepresentsanalysisofthe [Link],thissecondarysourcehelps inidentifyingthekeylegalinterpretationsthatshapedtheTrial. Rheinstein,[Link],[Link] UniversityofChicagoLawReview14.2(1947):[Link].14Oct.2013. ThiscriticalreviewofSheldonGlueck'sTheNurembergTrialsandAggressiveWar,explains theviewsexpressedintheworkaswellasKnopf'[Link] internationalcustomthatrecognizedaggressivewarasaninternationalcrimeamongcivilized [Link]'sevidenceincludedstatements fromtheHagueConventionsof1899and1907,theGenevaConventionof1923andthe

[Link]'sarguesthatthesestatementshavedevelopedthe [Link],ontheotherhand,arguesthatinactualitythecountof aggressivewarisbasedoffexpostfactolawandthattheNurembergtrialssetabadexample [Link] fromGluek'sbookaswellasunderstandingthatdeclaringdefendantsguiltyofaggressivewar [Link] rightsorinthiscasethelackofthem. Rosen,Tove,ed."TheInfluenceOfTheNurembergTrialOnInternationalCriminal Law."[Link],[Link].6Oct.2013. <[Link] speechesrelatedtoroberthjackson/theinfluenceofthenurembergtrialoninternatio alcriminallaw/>. AnarticlefromTheJacksonCenter,anorganizationdedicatedtopreservingthelifeand [Link],thisframesthehistoricalsignificance [Link] tracingitsdirectconnectiontotheRomeStatuteof1998andexaminingthehistoryofcrimes againsthumanityandwarcrimesininternationallaw,thissecondarysourceprovesitselftobe helpfulinunderstandingthespecificrightsexplicitlydevelopedattheTrialsandthe understandingoftheresponsibilityheldbytheinternationalcommunitydirectedstatedwith referencestoprimarydocuments. Sadat,LeilaNadya."TheNurembergParadox."TheAmericanJournalofComparativeLaw58.1 (2010):[Link].9Oct.2013.<[Link] ProfessorSadatprovidesaperspectiveontheincorporationsoftheNurembergprecedentsin FrenchandAmericandomesticlawsandalsodescribesthestateofinternationallawafterthe [Link] developmentofinternationallawafterWorldWarOneinadditionstooutliningthechargeof crimesagainsthumanity,ledbytheFrenchduringtheNurembergTrialsanditsappearances [Link] forwardthecontextofinternationallawintermsoftheeffectscountrieshadonitgrowthand stagnationandclarifiesthejourneyofinternationallawbeforeandaftertheTrials. Scharf,MichaelP."HAVEWEREALLYLEARNEDTHELESSONSOFNUREMBERG." [Link]:[Link],The JudgeAdvocateGeneral'sSchool,UnitedStatesArmy,Charlottesville,VA.17Nov.1997. Web.6Oct.2013. Thisaddress,[Link],overviewsthefourcriticismsoftheNurembergTrials. HearguesthatwhencritiquingtheTrialsyoumustdoit,notaccordingtomodernstandards,but [Link] Trials,[Link]

thefirstcritiqueoftheTrailsarethatbecausethetribunalwascomposedofrepresentativesfrom theAllies,thereisthreatofvictor'[Link],[Link],the [Link],the [Link] [Link] formulateanarguemeantthatdirectlyconnectstothemeofrightsandresponsibilities. Shnayerson,Robert."JudgmentatNuremberg."SmithsonianOct.1996:124+.WorldHistory [Link].22Sept.2013. ThissecondarysourceisanarticleprintedintheSmithsonianwrittenbyRobertShnayerson. ThisarticledescribestheNurembergTrialsasheroicforseekingjusticeimpartially,insteadof [Link]'sprosecutionanddescribesmany [Link]'sarticlealsolooksatthedefenseof [Link],thissourceishelpfulinunderstanding [Link],thearticlethen [Link] theperspectiveofsomeonewhofocussesontheAlliesresponsibilitytotryingthewarcriminals ratherthantherightsofthedefendants. Sigal,[Link],02Oct. [Link]. CommanderClancySigaloftheAmericanarmy,shareshisexperienceattheNurembergTrials [Link] [Link] [Link], [Link] SigalisnotonlyanAmericansoldier,[Link] fromplanningtomurderGoeringtobeinggladthathedidn'tandfindingpridethat,"wefoundit inourselvestogivetheworstmendueprocess."ThissourceissignificantforitleadstoSigal's autobiographyandshowsaglimpseofhowhethoughtitwashisresponsibilitytokillGoering goingintothetrial,butcomingoutofthetrailhewasproudtohaverespectedGoering'sright, thusconnectingtothethemeofresponsibility. "SpecialCourtforSierraLeone:ABOUT."SpecialCourtforSierraLeone.N.p.,[Link]. 04Jan.2014.<[Link] [Link] [Link] informationabouttheCourt,[Link] officialwebsitefortheSpecialCourtforSierraLeone,itcanbeexpectedthattheinformation onthepageisbiased,andmightignoreanypossibleflawsandproblemsofthecourt. However,itstillisusefulforprovidingbasicinformationontheCourt.

"TrialsoftheWarCriminals."LearningAbouttheHolocaust:AStudent'[Link] [Link]:MacmillanReferenceUSA,[Link] [Link].12Sept.2013. ThissecondarysourcedescribedthegeneralproceedingsoftheNurembergTrials,the SubsequentNurembergTrials,theKrasnodarTrials,theBergenBelsenTrials,theZyklonB Trials,[Link] [Link],pertinentinternationaltreatiesandconventionswerereferencedandintroducedand willultimatelyhelpininvestigatingtheinternationalrightinholdingthetrialsthroughfurther [Link] thebibliography,thispublicdocumentisreliableandmeanttoobjectivelyeducate. UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum."InternationalMilitaryTribunalAt Nuremberg."[Link] Museum,[Link].12Sept.2013. <[Link] AsanarticlefromtheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumthispublicsourceis [Link] WorldHistoryinContextdatabaseandprovidesadescriptionoftheNurembergTrialsand [Link] moreinformationtothoroughlyinvestigatethecourtproceedings,whichwillhelpindetermine howthetrialsproceededunderinternationallaw. "VictorsJustice:WereNazisTriedforWarCrimesSubjectedtoVictorsJustice?"Historyin [Link].11:TheHolocaust,[Link]:[Link], [Link].12Sept.2013. Byprovidingthreedifferingviewpointsandjustificationscollectedfromcollegeprofessors,this secondarysourceprovidesinformationaboutcourtproceedingsandinsightintothevaluesand actionsoftheAllies,[Link] database,[Link] theUSshiftedthetrialstobenefittheirresistancetothespreadofSovietpowerwhile [Link] perspectivesintothetrials,thissourcehashelpedbetterourargumentbyeitherthelackofor clearconnectionsofevidence. Walkinshaw,RobertB."TheNurembergandTokyoTrials:AnotherStepToward InternationalJustice."AmericanBarAssociationJournal35.4(1949): [Link].9Oct.2013. <[Link] ThisexceptfromtheAmericanBarAssociationJournalwaspublishedin1946and

commentsonthehistoricalsignificanceoftheTrialsintheprecedentitsetfortheprosecutionof [Link] betweeninternationalcustomsandthelegalstructurethatispresentinsideastate,this secondaryanalysisprovidesafocusedperspectiveontherightspresentduringandinforming [Link],thissource alsoincludesinsightintohowsomelawyerssawthelegalsituationduringanddirectlyafterthe Trials. Wilkes,DonaldE."TheTrialoftheCenturyAndofAllTime,PartOne."FlagpoleMagazine10 July2002:[Link].6Oct.2013. Thisarticle,[Link].,arguesthattheNurembergTrialswas [Link] statingthefactsofthelengthofthetranscripts,theamountofevidence,thenumberofpeopleon theprosecutionteam,thelengthofthetrial,[Link] goesontoarguethatthereisevidenceforpronouncingdefendantsguiltyofallormanyofthe [Link] [Link]. ThissourcealsorelatestothethemeofrightsandresponsibilitieswhenWilkesgoesintothe rightoftheAlliesduetotheGermansunconditionalsurrenderinaschoolhouseinReims, France. Wippman,David."TheInternationalCriminalCourt."[Link] [Link]:CambridgeUniversityPress,[Link] InternationalRelations96. Asasecondarysourcefullofcompilationsofessaysaboutdifferentaspectsofinternationallaw, thisbookhasprovidedinsightonthedifferingtheoriesandperspectivesontheroleinternational law,jurisdiction,consentandect,whichishelpfulincategorizingpastinternationaltreatiesby jurisdictionandpoliticalinterestsandinexaminingargumentsquestioningthelegalityofthe [Link],thispublicsourceis intendedforeducationandhasnoreasontodistort. Wyzanski,CharlesE."Nuremberg:AFairTrial?ADangerousPrecedent."TheAtlantic.N.p., [Link].29Sept.2013. ThisarticlewaswrittenbyAmericanfederaljudge,[Link] critizestheTrials,notforpunishingthedefendants,[Link] articlegoesthrougheachofthefourcounts,[Link] Wyzanski,Count3,warcrimes,haslimitedissuesbecausethemurderandtortureofwar criminalshadbeeninternationallyestablishedasacrimeatTheHagueConferenceof1907. Additionally,WyzanskifindsnoproblemwiththeInternationalMilitaryTribunalnotrecognizing superiorordersasadefensebecauseallGerman,French,Russian,BritishandAmericancourts settlethisopenquestionmoreoftenthannotinthesameway.InregardstoCount4,crimes againsthumanity,thedefinitiongivenintheindictmentusesloosetermsofinternational

conventionsbutitneverspecifiesacertaintreatyinwhichtheseconventionsarestated Wyzanskisaysthereisn'[Link],whichisagainstthe [Link]"*nullum crimenetnullapoenasinelege*nocrimeandnopenaltywithoutanantecedentlaw." WyzanskicriticizesCount2,crimesagainstpeace,becausethoughithadbeenoutlawed,ithad [Link]. Lastlyincount1,conspiracy,Wyzanskiarguesthatitisridiculousforamemberofa governmentthatisbeingaccusedofconspiracy,toberesponsibleforeveryactionthat [Link] Trials,itsfairnessanditsprotectionofdefendant'srightsbecauseWyzanskigivesadetailed explanationoftheproblemswitheachcountaswellasidentifyingoverallissuesoftheTrials.