Earths Composition and Structure: A Journey to the Center of the Earth

Earths Surface
Our experience with Earth is limited to its surface. Yet Earth has a complicated interior. Earth is characterized by
An internally generated magnetic field. A layered interior
Solid and liquid layers.
The Black Canyon of the Gunnison, CO

A gaseous envelope.
i.e. atmosphere

The Solar System

Human perceptions have changed.
Early history Planets as moving lights. 1600s 1st telescopes saw hazy spheres. Today A complex, evolving system.
Structure History

Space probes have photographed and analyzed planets. Scientists have hypothesized likely origins of the solar system.

Earth and the Solar System

What would solar system visitors notice?
Magnetic field. Atmosphere. Surface features.
Continents. Oceans. Polar ice caps. Evidence of humanity?
Structures. Dams. Great Wall of China. Cities. Roads / canals. Electric lights.

The Celestial Neighborhood

Interstellar space: a ~vacuum with a virtual absence of matter. The amount of matter greatly increases approaching the Sun. The Sun ejects matter outward into space as the solar wind. Solar wind:
Magnetically & electrically charged particles. Stream outward in all directions. Consists of
Protons (+ charge). Electrons ( charge).

Only a small percentage of the solar wind impinges upon Earth.

Five Key Characteristics About Earths Structure:

1. Earth has a dipole magnetic field that deflects solar wind and protects earths surface from solar radiation 2. Earth has a stratified atmosphere, mainly composed of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) 3. Earth is made of a variety of minerals, glasses, melts, fluids and volatiles, all left behind during birth of the solar system 4. The Earth has layers: a thin silicate crust, a thick iron- & magnesium silicate mantle, and a thick metallic core 5. Physically, the earth can be divided into a rigid outer lithosphere and a plastic/ductile asthenosphere

Earths Magnetic Field

Geodynamo - The Earths magnetic field is produced by the geodynamo
-Flow in the liquid iron outer core creates a magnetic field

Magnetic field - region affected by force emanating from a magnet - grows stronger as separating distance decreases - attracts or repels magnetically charged or moving electrically charged objects - compasses work because Earth is a large magnet

Earths Magnetic Field

Magnetic field
Like a bar magnet, Earths magnetic field is a dipole, (has both a N and S pole) Solar wind contains electromagnetic particles that are deflected by earths field. These particles distort the shape of earths magnetic field in space Van Allen belts two belts in the inner magnetic field where high energy cosmic rays are trapped. Protects us from solar radiation!

Northern & Southern Lights

Form because of our dipole magnetic field!

Aurorae
Some ions escape Van Allen belts.
These ions are pulled to the magnetic poles. The ions create light in the upper atmosphere.

Spectacular aurora follow solar flares.

Aurora borealis Northern lights. Aurora australis Southern lights.

Earths Atmosphere
Distinct layers of gas surround the solid portion of the earth. o Composition is ~uniform regardless of altitude
o 78% N2 o 21% O2 o All others ~1%
o Ar, CO2, CH4, H2O, Ne, CO, SO2 o Some other Planets have atmospheres too! o None have N2 & O2 as dominant gasses o Earth was oxygen-free until ~2.5 Ga

Earths Atmosphere
o Pressure decreases with increasing altitude
o Reflects # of molecules/volume o Lower pressure = less molecules/volume o Air pressure @ sea level = 14.7 lb/in2 = 1 bar

o Pressure is caused by the weight of overlying material

o Upper atmosphere has less material above it
o Pressure is lower

o 99% of atmosphere is below 50 km, the rest is between 50 and 500 km.

Earths Atmosphere
o Earths Atmosphere is divided into distinct layers based on altitude
o Exosphere (very thin ~500 km)
o Atmosphere merges with space

o Thermosphere (>90 km)

o Where space shuttles orbit

o Mesosphere (50-90 km)

o Meteors burn up here

o Stratosphere (12-50 km)

o Stable air; good for jets

o Tropopause (11-12 km) o Troposphere (0-11 km)

o Mixing layer o All weather is limited to this layer o Tropo = Greek for turning

Earths Atmosphere
o Troposphere
o A well-mixed layer dominated by convection of air masses

o Convection
o Method of heat transfer in a fluid
o Think lava lamp!

o o o o

Cold is more dense = sinks Hot is less dense = rises This process results in circular convection cells Also causes pressure gradients which create wind! o Also applies to the interior of the Earth

this guy likes convection

Earths Components
o Earths surface = ~30% land, ~70% water o unlike any other known planet o Hydrosphere = includes oceans, lakes, seas, rivers, & groundwater o Cryosphere = glaciers, snow, and sea ice
o Earths surface is not flat; it has topography o Ignoring oceans, Earths surface is dominated by two distinct elevations: o Most land is 0-2 km above sea level o Most of the sea floor is 3-5 km below sea level

Earths Components
o Earths elemental composition reflects mostly heavier elements not blown away by solar wind during formation of the solar system o Most abundant elements o Fe, O, Si, Mg o Most common minerals consist of silica (SiO2) mixed in varying proportions with other elements such as Fe, Mg, Al, Ca, K, Na
o Felsic = more silica (less Fe/Mg) & less dense
o E.g. Granite

35%

30%

10%

10%

o Mafic = less silica (more Fe/Mg) & more dense

o E.g. Gabbro / Basalt

15%
Bulk Earth composition

o Range: Felsic / Intermediate / Mafic / Ultramafic

Earth Materials
Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
Organic compounds Carbon-containing compounds.
Most are residue from once-living creatures. Include wood, peat, lignite, coal, and oil. Geologically rare (decomposes in contact with oxygen).

Earth Materials
Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
Minerals Inorganic crystalline solids.
Comprise rocks and, hence, most of the Earth. Most rocks on Earth are silicates (based on Si and O).

Glasses Non-crystalline mineral-like matter.

Cool too quickly to form structure

Rocks Aggregates of minerals. There are many types.

Igneous Cooled from a liquid (melt). Sedimentary Debris cemented from pre-existing rock. Metamorphic Rock altered by pressure and temperature.

Earth Materials
Metals Solids made of metallic elements. Melts Rocks that have been heated to a liquid.
Magma Molten rock beneath the surface. Lava Molten rock at the surface.

Volatiles Materials that turn into gas at surface temps.

H2O, CO2, CH4, and SO2 Volatiles are released from volcanic eruption.

A Layered Earth
We live on the thin outer skin of Earth. Early perceptions about Earths interior were wrong.
Open caverns filled with magma, water, and air. Furnaces and flames.

We now know that Earth is comprised of layers.

The Crust. The Mantle. The Core.
Outer Core. Inner Core.

Some basic rules of physics give some clues

From Miltons Paradise Lost

Earths Density
Earths Density gives us clues about its internal structure

Density = Mass/Volume
Measures how much mass is in a given volume. Expressed in units of mass/volume e.g. g/cm3 Ice floatswhy?

Estimates of earths mass and volume give a whole earth density of ~5.5 g/cm3 Typical rocks at the surface of the Earth have a density of 2.0-2.5 g/cm3 What does this require of the density of material in the Earths interior?

Earths Density
Earths shape as a clue to the internal structure of the Earth
If density increased gradually and uniformly towards the center, a significant portion of Earths mass would be near the outer edges.

Then centrifugal force (not centripetal) would cause the planet to flatten into a disk. This has (obviously) not happened

Earths Layers
Earths shape as a clue to the layering of the earth
If the Earth consisted of a thin solid shell over a thick liquid center, then the surface would rise and fall with tides like the ocean This does not happen; only the oceans rise and fall.

Thus, the Crust does not float over a liquid interior

A Layered Earth
Earthquake clues - Earthquake energy transmitted as seismic waves that pass through Earth.
Seismic waves have been used to probe the interior.
Wave velocity changes with density. Velocity changes give depth of layer changes.

Changes with depth.

Pressure. Temperature.

More on this in Chapter 10 and Interlude D!

Earths Interior Layers

The Earth (and other planets) have layered interiors.
Crust
Continental Oceanic

Mantle
Upper Lower

Core
Outer Liquid Inner Solid

W. W. Norton

The Crust
The outermost skin of Earth with variable thickness.
Thickest under mountain ranges (70 km 40 miles). Thinnest under mid-ocean ridges (3 km 2 miles).

The Mohorovii discontinuity or Moho is the lower boundary.

Separates the crust from the upper mantle. Discovered in 1909 by Andrija Mohorovicic. Marked by a change in the velocity of seismic P waves.

Two Types of Crust

Continental crust Underlies the continents.
Avg. rock density about 2.7 g/cm3. Avg. thickness 35-40 km. Felsic composition. Avg. rock type = Granite

Oceanic crust Underlies the ocean basins.

Density about 3.0 g/cm3. Avg. thickness 7-10 km. Mafic composition Avg. rock type = Basalt/Gabbro

Two Types of Crust

Crustal density controls surface position.
Continental crust
Less dense; floats higher.

Oceanic crust
More dense: floats lower.

Crustal Composition
98.5% of the crust is comprised of just 8 elements. Oxygen is (by far!) the most abundant element in the crust.
This reflects the importance of silicate (SiO2-based) minerals. As a large atom, oxygen occupies ~93% of crustal volume.

Bulk Earth Composition

35%

30%

10%

10%

15%

Earths Mantle
Solid rock layer between the crust and the core. 2,885 km thick, the mantle is 82% of Earths volume. Mantle composition = ultramafic rock called peridotite. Below ~100-150 km, the rock is hot enough to flow. It convects: hot mantle rises, cold mantle sinks. Three subdivisions: upper, transitional, and lower.

The Core
An iron-rich sphere with a radius of 3,471 km. 2 components with differing seismic wave behavior. Outer core
Liquid iron-nickel-sulfur 2,255 km thick Density 10-12 g/cm3

Inner core
Solid iron-nickel alloy Radius of 1,220 km. Density 13 g/cm3

Flow in the outer core generates the magnetic field.

Lithosphere-Asthenosphere
The Crust, Mantle, Core boundaries
defined by composition but sometimes we want to divide the layers of the Earth by their behavior or physical properties

Lithosphere The brittle portion of Earths interior.

Behaves as a non-flowing, rigid material. The material that moves as tectonic plates. Made of 2 components: crust and upper mantle.

Asthenosphere The ductile portion of Earths interior.

Shallower under oceanic lithosphere. Deeper under continental lithosphere. Flows as a soft ductile solid. Contains a small percentage of melt (< 2%)

Boundaries Between Layers

The Crust-Mantle boundary = Moho
defined by seismic discontinuity indicating significant change in composition.

Brittle-ductile transition
Defined by a significant change in rock physical properties (viscosity) Also defined as the depth below which earthquakes do not occur.

Lithosphere Crust