Basic Computer Organization & Design
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND DESIGN
Instruction Codes
Computer Registers
Computer Instructions Timing and Control
Instruction Cycle
Memory Reference Instructions Input-Output and Interrupt
Complete Computer Description
Design of Basic Computer Design of Accumulator Logic
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Instruction codes
INSTRUCTION CODES
Program: A set of instructions that specify the operations, operands, and the sequence by which processing has to occur. Instruction Code: A group of bits that tell the computer to perform a specific operation (a sequence of micro-operation) -->macro-operation - usually divided into operation code, operand address, addressing mode, etc. - basic addressing modes Immediate, Direct, Indirect Simplest stored program organization
15 12 11 Opcode Address Instruction Format 15 Binary Operand 0 Memory 4096x16 Instructions (program) 0 Operands (data) Processor register (Accumulator, AC)
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Instruction codes
INDIRECT ADDRESS
Instruction Format
15 14 12 11 Address I Opcode 0
Direct Address
22 0 ADD 457 35
Indirect address
1 ADD 300
300 457 Operand 1350
1350
Operand
+
AC
+
AC
Effective Address(EFA, EA) The address, that can be directly used without modification to access an operand for a computation-type instruction, or as the target address for a branch-type instruction
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Registers
COMPUTER REGISTERS
Registers in the Basic Computer
11 0
PC
11 0
AR
15 0
Memory 4096 x 16
IR
15 0 15 0
TR
7 0 7 0 15
DR
0
OUTR
INPR
AC
List of BC Registers
DR AR AC IR PC TR INPR OUTR 16 12 16 16 12 16 8 8 Data Register Address Register Accumulator Instruction Register Program Counter Temporary Register Input Register Output Register Holds memory operand Holds address for memory Processor register Holds instruction code Holds address of instruction Holds temporary data Holds input character Holds output character Computer Architectures Lab
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Registers
COMMON BUS SYSTEM
S2 S1 S0 Memory unit 4096 x 16 Write Read Address 1
Bus
7
AR
LD INR CLR
PC
LD INR CLR
DR
LD INR CLR Adder and logic E
AC
LD INR CLR
INPR IR
LD 5 6
TR
LD INR CLR
OUTR
LD 16-bit common bus
Clock
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Instructions
COMPUTER(BC) INSTRUCTIONS
Basic Computer Instruction code format Memory-Reference Instructions
15 I 14 12 11 Opcode Address
(OP-code = 000 ~ 110)
0
Register-Reference Instructions
15 0 1 1 12 11 Register operation 1
(OP-code = 111, I = 0)
0
Input-Output Instructions
15 1 1 12 11 1 1 I/O operation
(OP-code =111, I = 1)
0
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Instructions
BASIC COMPUTER INSTRUCTIONS
Symbol AND ADD LDA STA BUN BSA ISZ CLA CLE CMA CME CIR CIL INC SPA SNA SZA SZE HLT INP OUT SKI SKO ION IOF Hex Code I=0 I=1 0xxx 8xxx 1xxx 9xxx 2xxx Axxx 3xxx Bxxx 4xxx Cxxx 5xxx Dxxx 6xxx Exxx 7800 7400 7200 7100 7080 7040 7020 7010 7008 7004 7002 7001 F800 F400 F200 F100 F080 F040 Description AND memory word to AC Add memory word to AC Load AC from memory Store content of AC into memory Branch unconditionally Branch and save return address Increment and skip if zero Clear AC Clear E Complement AC Complement E Circulate right AC and E Circulate left AC and E Increment AC Skip next instr. if AC is positive Skip next instr. if AC is negative Skip next instr. if AC is zero Skip next instr. if E is zero Halt computer Input character to AC Output character from AC Skip on input flag Skip on output flag Interrupt on Interrupt off Computer Architectures Lab
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Instructions
INSTRUCTION SET COMPLETENESS
A computer should have a set of instructions so that the user can construct machine language programs to evaluate any function that is known to be computable. Instruction Types Functional Instructions - Arithmetic, logic, and shift instructions - ADD, CMA, INC, CIR, CIL, AND, CLA Transfer Instructions - Data transfers between the main memory and the processor registers - LDA, STA Control Instructions - Program sequencing and control - BUN, BSA, ISZ Input/Output Instructions - Input and output - INP, OUT
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Timing and control
TIMING AND CONTROL
Control unit of basic computer
15 Instruction register (IR) 14 13 12 11 - 0 3x8 decoder 7 6543 210 I D0 D7 T15 T0 15 14 . . . . 2 1 0 4 x 16 decoder Increment (INR) Clear (CLR) Clock Other inputs
Control logic gates
Control outputs
4-bit sequence counter (SC)
Control unit implementation Hardwired Implementation Microprogrammed Implementation
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Timing and control
TIMING SIGNALS
- Generated by 4-bit sequence counter and 4x16 decoder - The SC can be incremented or cleared.
- Example: T0, T1, T2, T3, T4, T0, T1, . . . Assume: At time T4, SC is cleared to 0 if decoder output D3 is active.
T0 Clock T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 D3 CLR SC
D3T4: SC 0 T1
T2
T3
T4
T0
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Instruction Cycle
INSTRUCTION CYCLE
BC Instruction cycle: [Fetch Decode [Indirect] Execute]* Fetch and Decode
T0: AR PC (S0S1S2=010, T0=1) T1: IR M [AR], PC PC + 1 (S0S1S2=111, T1=1) T2: D0, . . . , D7 Decode IR(12-14), AR IR(0-11), I IR(15)
S2 S1 Bus S0
T1 T0
Memory unit
Address Read
AR
LD
PC
INR
IR
LD Common bus Clock
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Instrction Cycle
DETERMINE THE TYPE OF INSTRUCTION
Start SC 0 AR PC T0 T1 T2 Decode Opcode in IR(12-14), AR IR(0-11), I IR(15) (Register or I/O) = 1 (I/O) = 1 T3 Execute input-output instruction SC 0 = 0 (Memory-reference) (indirect) = 1 T3 Execute register-reference instruction SC 0 T3 AR M[AR] = 0 (direct) I T3 Nothing T4
IR M[AR], PC PC + 1
D7
= 0 (register)
Execute memory-reference instruction SC 0
D'7IT3: D'7I'T3: D7I'T3: D7IT3:
AR M[AR] Nothing Execute a register-reference instr. Execute an input-output instr.
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Instruction Cycle
REGISTER REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS
Register Reference Instructions are identified when - D7 = 1, I = 0 - Register Ref. Instr. is specified in b0 ~ b11 of IR - Execution starts with timing signal T3 r = D7 I T3 => Register Reference Instruction Bi = IR(i) , i=0,1,2,...,11 CLA CLE CMA CME CIR CIL INC SPA SNA SZA SZE HLT r: rB11: rB10: rB9: rB8: rB7: rB6: rB5: rB4: rB3: rB2: rB1: rB0: SC 0 AC 0 E0 AC AC E E AC shr AC, AC(15) E, E AC(0) AC shl AC, AC(0) E, E AC(15) AC AC + 1 if (AC(15) = 0) then (PC PC+1) if (AC(15) = 1) then (PC PC+1) if (AC = 0) then (PC PC+1) if (E = 0) then (PC PC+1) S 0 (S is a start-stop flip-flop)
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MR Instructions
MEMORY REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS
Symbol
Operation Decoder
Symbolic Description
AND ADD LDA STA BUN BSA ISZ
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
AC AC M[AR] AC AC + M[AR], E Cout AC M[AR] M[AR] AC PC AR M[AR] PC, PC AR + 1 M[AR] M[AR] + 1, if M[AR] + 1 = 0 then PC PC+1
- The effective address of the instruction is in AR and was placed there during timing signal T2 when I = 0, or during timing signal T3 when I = 1 - Memory cycle is assumed to be short enough to complete in a CPU cycle - The execution of MR Instruction starts with T4 AND to AC D0T4: D0T5: ADD to AC D1T4: D1T5: DR M[AR] AC AC DR, SC 0 Read operand AND with AC
DR M[AR] AC AC + DR, E Cout, SC 0
Read operand Add to AC and store carry in E
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MEMORY REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS
LDA: Load to AC D2T4: DR M[AR] D2T5: AC DR, SC 0 STA: Store AC D3T4: M[AR] AC, SC 0 BUN: Branch Unconditionally D4T4: PC AR, SC 0 BSA: Branch and Save Return Address M[AR] PC, PC AR + 1
Memory, PC, AR at time T4 20 PC = 21 0 BSA 135 Memory, PC after execution 20 21 0 BSA 135
Next instruction
Next instruction
AR = 135
135
21
136
Subroutine
PC = 136
Subroutine
BUN Memory
135
BUN Memory
135
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MR Instructions
MEMORY REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS
BSA:
D5T4: M[AR] PC, AR AR + 1 D5T5: PC AR, SC 0
ISZ: Increment and Skip-if-Zero D6T4: DR M[AR] D6T5: DR DR + 1 D6T4: M[AR] DR, if (DR = 0) then (PC PC + 1), SC 0
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MR Instructions
FLOWCHART FOR MEMORY REFERENCE INSTRUCTIONS
Memory-reference instruction
AND D0 T 4 DR <- M[AR] ADD D1 T 4 DR <- M[AR] LDA D2 T 4 DR <- M[AR] D2 T 5 AC <- DR SC <- 0 STA D 3T 4 M[AR] <- AC SC <- 0
D0 T 5 D1 T 5 AC <- AC DR AC <- AC + DR SC <- 0 E <- Cout SC <- 0 BUN D4 T 4 PC <- AR SC <- 0 BSA D5 T 4 M[AR] <- PC AR <- AR + 1 D5 T 5 PC <- AR SC <- 0
ISZ D6 T 4 DR <- M[AR]
D6 T 5 DR <- DR + 1 D6 T 6 M[AR] <- DR If (DR = 0) then (PC <- PC + 1) SC <- 0
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I/O and Interrupt
INPUT-OUTPUT AND INTERRUPT
A Terminal with a keyboard and a Printer Input-Output Configuration
Input-output terminal Printer Serial communication interface Receiver interface
registers and Computer flip-flops
OUTR FGO
AC Transmitter interface
INPR OUTR FGI FGO IEN
Input register - 8 bits Output register - 8 bits Input flag - 1 bit Output flag - 1 bit Interrupt enable - 1 bit
Keyboard
INPR
FGI
Serial Communications Path Parallel Communications Path
- The terminal sends and receives serial information - The serial info. from the keyboard is shifted into INPR - The serial info. for the printer is stored in the OUTR - INPR and OUTR communicate with the terminal serially and with the AC in parallel. - The flags are needed to synchronize the timing difference between I/O device and the computer
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I/O and Interrupt
PROGRAM CONTROLLED DATA TRANSFER
-- CPU -/* Input */ /* Initially FGI = 0 */ loop: If FGI = 0 goto loop AC INPR, FGI 0 /* Output */ /* Initially FGO = 1 */ loop: If FGO = 0 goto loop OUTR AC, FGO 0 -- I/O Device -loop: If FGI = 1 goto loop INPR new data, FGI 1 loop: If FGO = 1 goto loop
consume OUTR, FGO 1 FGO=1
Start Output AC Data yes FGO=0 no OUTR AC FGO 0 yes More Character no END Computer Architectures Lab
FGI=0
Start Input FGI 0 yes FGI=0 no AC INPR yes More Character no END
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INPUT-OUTPUT INSTRUCTIONS
D7IT3 = p IR(i) = Bi, i = 6, , 11
INP OUT SKI SKO ION IOF pB11: pB10: pB9: pB8: pB7: pB6: AC(0-7) INPR, FGI 0 OUTR AC(0-7), FGO 0 if(FGI = 1) then (PC PC + 1) if(FGO = 1) then (PC PC + 1) IEN 1 IEN 0 Input char. to AC Output char. from AC Skip on input flag Skip on output flag Interrupt enable on Interrupt enable off
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I/O and Interrupt
PROGRAM-CONTROLLED INPUT/OUTPUT
Program-controlled I/O - Continuous CPU involvement I/O takes valuable CPU time - CPU slowed down to I/O speed - Simple - Least hardware
Input
LOOP, SKI DEV BUN LOOP INP DEV
Output
LOOP, LOP, LD SKO BUN OUT DATA DEV LOP DEV
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INTERRUPT INITIATED INPUT/OUTPUT
- Open communication only when some data has to be passed --> interrupt.
- The I/O interface, instead of the CPU, monitors the I/O device.
- When the interface founds that the I/O device is ready for data transfer, it generates an interrupt request to the CPU
- Upon detecting an interrupt, the CPU stops momentarily the task it is doing, branches to the service routine to process the data transfer, and then returns to the task it was performing.
* IEN (Interrupt-enable flip-flop) - can be set and cleared by instructions - when cleared, the computer cannot be interrupted
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I/O and Interrupt
FLOWCHART FOR INTERRUPT CYCLE
R = Interrupt f/f
Instruction cycle =0 R =1 Interrupt cycle
Fetch and decode instructions =0
Store return address in location 0 M[0] <- PC
Execute instructions
=1
IEN =1 FGI =0 FGO =0
Branch to location 1 PC <- 1
=1
R <- 1
IEN <- 0 R <- 0
- The interrupt cycle is a HW implementation of a branch and save return address operation. - At the beginning of the next instruction cycle, the instruction that is read from memory is in address 1. - At memory address 1, the programmer must store a branch instruction that sends the control to an interrupt service routine - The instruction that returns the control to the original program is "indirect BUN 0"
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I/O and Interrupt
REGISTER TRANSFER OPERATIONS IN INTERRUPT CYCLE
Memory Before interrupt 0 1 255 PC = 256 1120 0 BUN 1120 After interrupt cycle 0 PC = 1 0 255 256 1120 256 BUN 1120 Main Program I/O Program 0 1 BUN 0
Main Program I/O Program 1 BUN
Register Transfer Statements for Interrupt Cycle - R F/F 1 if IEN (FGI + FGO)T0T1T2 T0T1T2 (IEN)(FGI + FGO): R 1 - The fetch and decode phases of the instruction cycle must be modified:Replace T0, T1, T2 with R'T0, R'T1, R'T2 - The interrupt cycle : RT0: AR 0, TR PC RT1: M[AR] TR, PC 0 RT2: PC PC + 1, IEN 0, R 0, SC 0
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I/O and Interrupt
FURTHER QUESTIONS ON INTERRUPT
Questions on Interrupt How can the CPU recognize the device requesting an interrupt ? Since different devices are likely to require different interrupt service routines, how can the CPU obtain the starting address of the appropriate routine in each case ? Should any device be allowed to interrupt the CPU while another interrupt is being serviced ? How can the situation be handled when two or more interrupt requests occur simultaneously ?
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Description
COMPLETE COMPUTER DESCRIPTION
Flowchart of Operations
start SC <- 0, IEN <- 0, R <- 0
=0(Instruction R Cycle) RT0 AR <- PC RT1 IR <- M[AR], PC <- PC + 1 RT2 AR <- IR(0~11), I <- IR(15) D0...D7 <- Decode IR(12 ~ 14) =1(Register or I/O) D7
=1(Interrupt Cycle)
RT1 M[AR] <- TR, PC <- 0 RT2 PC <- PC + 1, IEN <- 0 R <- 0, SC <- 0 =0(Memory Ref)
RT0 AR <- 0, TR <- PC
=1 (I/O)
=0 (Register)
=1(Indir)
=0(Dir)
D7IT3 Execute I/O Instruction
D7IT3 Execute RR Instruction
D7IT3 AR <- M[AR]
D7IT3 Idle D7T4
Execute MR Instruction
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Description
COMPLETE COMPUTER DESCRIPTION
Microoperations
Fetch Decode RT0: RT1: RT2: AR <- PC IR <- M[AR], PC <- PC + 1 D0, ..., D7 <- Decode IR(12 ~ 14), AR <- IR(0 ~ 11), I <- IR(15) AR <- M[AR] R <- 1 AR <- 0, TR <- PC M[AR] <- TR, PC <- 0 PC <- PC + 1, IEN <- 0, R <- 0, SC <- 0 DR <- M[AR] AC <- AC . DR, SC <- 0 DR <- M[AR] AC <- AC + DR, E <- Cout, SC <- 0 DR <- M[AR] AC <- DR, SC <- 0 M[AR] <- AC, SC <- 0 PC <- AR, SC <- 0 M[AR] <- PC, AR <- AR + 1 PC <- AR, SC <- 0 DR <- M[AR] DR <- DR + 1 M[AR] <- DR, if(DR=0) then (PC <- PC + 1), SC <- 0
Indirect D7IT3: Interrupt T0T1T2(IEN)(FGI + FGO): RT0: RT1: RT2: Memory-Reference AND D0T4: D0T5: ADD D1T4: D1T5: LDA D2T4: D2T5: STA D3T4: BUN D4T4: BSA D5T4: D5T5: ISZ D6T4: D6T5: D6T6:
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Description
COMPLETE COMPUTER DESCRIPTION
Microoperations
Register-Reference D7IT3 = r IR(i) = Bi r: CLA rB11: CLE rB10: CMA rB9: CME rB8: CIR rB7: CIL rB6: INC rB5: SPA rB4: SNA rB3: SZA rB2: SZE rB1: HLT rB0: Input-Output INP OUT SKI SKO ION IOF D7IT3 = p IR(i) = Bi p: pB11: pB10: pB9: pB8: pB7: pB6: (Common to all register-reference instr) (i = 0,1,2, ..., 11) SC <- 0 AC <- 0 E <- 0 AC <- AC E <- E AC <- shr AC, AC(15) <- E, E <- AC(0) AC <- shl AC, AC(0) <- E, E <- AC(15) AC <- AC + 1 If(AC(15) =0) then (PC <- PC + 1) If(AC(15) =1) then (PC <- PC + 1) If(AC = 0) then (PC <- PC + 1) If(E=0) then (PC <- PC + 1) S <- 0 (Common to all input-output instructions) (i = 6,7,8,9,10,11) SC <- 0 AC(0-7) <- INPR, FGI <- 0 OUTR <- AC(0-7), FGO <- 0 If(FGI=1) then (PC <- PC + 1) If(FGO=1) then (PC <- PC + 1) IEN <- 1 IEN <- 0
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Design of Basic Computer
DESIGN OF BASIC COMPUTER(BC)
Hardware Components of BC A memory unit: 4096 x 16. Registers: AR, PC, DR, AC, IR, TR, OUTR, INPR, and SC Flip-Flops(Status): I, S, E, R, IEN, FGI, and FGO Decoders: a 3x8 Opcode decoder a 4x16 timing decoder Common bus: 16 bits Control logic gates: Adder and Logic circuit: Connected to AC Control Logic Gates - Input Controls of the nine registers - Read and Write Controls of memory - Set, Clear, or Complement Controls of the flip-flops - S2, S1, S0 Controls to select a register for the bus - AC, and Adder and Logic circuit
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Design of Basic Computer
CONTROL OF REGISTERS AND MEMORY
Address Register; AR Scan all of the register transfer statements that change the content of AR: RT0: AR PC LD(AR) RT2: AR IR(0-11) LD(AR) D7IT3: AR M[AR] LD(AR) RT0: AR 0 CLR(AR) D5T4: AR AR + 1 INR(AR) LD(AR) = R'T0 + R'T2 + D'7IT3 CLR(AR) = RT0 INR(AR) = D5T4
D'7 I T3 From bus 12 AR LD INR CLR 12 To bus Clock
T2 R T0 D T4
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Design of Basic Computer
CONTROL OF FLAGS
IEN: Interrupt Enable Flag pB7: IEN 1 (I/O Instruction) pB6: IEN 0 (I/O Instruction) RT2: IEN 0 (Interrupt) p = D7IT3 (Input/Output Instruction)
D I
T3
B 7
IEN
B 6 R T2
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Design of Basic Computer
CONTROL OF COMMON BUS
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 S2 Encoder S1 S0 Multiplexer bus select inputs
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
S2 S1 S0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
selected register none AR PC DR AC IR TR Memory
For AR
D4T4: PC AR D5T5: PC AR
x1 = D4T4 + D5T5 Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab
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Design of AC Logic
DESIGN OF ACCUMULATOR LOGIC
Circuits associated with AC
From DR From INPR 8 16 16 Adder and logic circuit 16 AC 16
To bus
LD INR CLR Clock
Control gates
All the statements that change the content of AC
D0T5: D1T5: D2T5: pB11: rB9: rB7 : rB6 : rB11 : rB5 : AC AC DR AND with DR AC AC + DR Add with DR AC DR Transfer from DR AC(0-7) INPR Transfer from INPR AC AC Complement AC shr AC, AC(15) E Shift right AC shl AC, AC(0) E Shift left AC 0 Clear AC AC + 1 Increment
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Design of AC Logic
CONTROL OF AC REGISTER
Gate structures for controlling the LD, INR, and CLR of AC
From Adder and Logic D0 T5 D1 D2 T5 p B11 r B9 B7 B6 B5 B11 Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab AND ADD DR INPR COM SHR SHL INC CLR 16 AC LD INR CLR 16 To bus Clock
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Design of AC Logic
ADDER AND LOGIC CIRCUIT
One stage of Adder and Logic circuit
DR(i) AC(i)
AND
Ci FA C i+1 From INPR bit(i) DR INPR COM SHR AC(i+1) SHL AC(i-1) K LD Ii J Q AC(i)
ADD
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