Lifespan Development

Psychology 2012 Fall 2004

Introduction: Your Life Story

Developmental Psychology branch of psychology that studies how people change mentally, physically, and socially throughout the lifespan For every age and stage of life, developmental psychologists investigate the influence of multiple factors on development,
including biological, environmental, social, cultural, and behavioral factors

Along with studying common patterns of growth and

change, developmental psychologists look at ways in which people differ in their development Developmental psychologists often conceptualize the lifespan in terms of basic stages of development

Introduction: Your Life Story

Traditionally, the stages of the lifespan are defined by

age, which implies relatively sudden, age-related changes as we move from one stage to the next
Some aspects of development, such as prenatal development and language development, are closely tied to critical periods

Most of our physical, mental, and social changes,

however, occur gradually,

And the theme of gradually unfolding changes throughout the ages and stages of life will become more evident as we trace the typical course of human development in this chapter

Another important theme is the interaction between

heredity and environment,

Traditionally called the nature-nurture issue

Genetic Contributions to Your Life Story

A chromosome is a long, threadlike structure composed of twisted parallel strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
which is the chemical basis of all heredity

DNA contains the chemical genetic code that directs the growth and development of many of your unique characteristics
Each gene is a unit of DNA instructions pertaining to

some characteristic,
such as eye or hair color, or handedness

Genetic Contributions to Your Life Story

At conception, the genes carried on the 23 chromosomes contributed by your biological mothers ovum were paired with
The genes carried on the 23 chromosomes contributed by your biological fathers sperm

Multiple gene pairs are involved in directing many complex features of development

Genetic Contributions to Your Life Story

Dominant and Recessive Characteristics
Genotype the underlying genetic makeup of a

particular individual Phenotype the actual displayed traits

When a genotype combines conflicting genetic information:

the dominant gene will influence the trait actually

displayed
Traits like freckles, dark eyes, dark hair, and dimples are referred to as dominant characteristics
Because they require only one member of a gene pair to be dominant for the trait to be displayed

Genetic Contributions to Your Life Story

A recessive gene is a gene whose instructions are not expressed if combined with a dominant gene
Only expressed if paired with another recessive gene
Recessive characteristics traits whose expression requires two identical recessive genes
Like straight hair, attached earlobes, and flat feet

We inherit from our biological parents a genetic potential:

the expression of which can be influenced by

environmental conditions

Genetic Contributions to Your Life Story

The sex chromosomes and sex-linked recessive characteristics
The sex chromosomes (the 23rd pair of

chromosomes) determine biological sex

The large X chromosome carries more genes than does the smaller Y chromosome, including genes for traits unrelated to sex
In females, the 23rd pair of chromosomes is made up of two large X chromosomes In males, a large X chromosome and a smaller Y chromosome make up the 23rd pair of chromosomes

Genetic Contributions to Your Life Story

The sex chromosomes and sex-linked recessive characteristics
For males, the smaller Y chromosome often does not

contain a corresponding gene segment to match the one on the X chromosome.

This means that a male can display certain recessive characteristics as the result of having only one recessive gene carried on the X chromosome
Like red-green color blindness and hemophilia

Sex-linked recessive characteristics traits determined by recessive genes on the X chromosomes

Prenatal Development
At conception, chromosomes from the biological mother and father combine to form a single cell the fertilized egg (zygote)
Prenatal stage made up of three distinct phases:
1. Germinal (first two weeks), 2. Embryonic (weeks 3-8), and 3. Fetal (week 9-birth) periods

Prenatal Development
Germinal (zygotic) period represents the first two weeks of prenatal development
The zygote undergoes rapid cell division

before becoming implanted on the mothers uterine wall By the end of the two-week germinal period, the single-celled zygote has developed into a cluster of cells called the embryo

The Zygote
First Division Second Division

Prenatal Development
The embryonic period from weeks 3 to 8
During this time of rapid growth and intensive cell

differentiation, the organs and major systems of the body form.

Genes on the sex chromosomes and hormonal influences trigger the initial development of the sex organs

Protectively housed in the fluid-filled amniotic sac, the embryos

lifeline is the umbilical cord

Via the umbilical cord, the embryo receives nutrients, oxygen, and water and gets rid of carbon monoxide and other wastes The umbilical cord attaches the embryo to the placenta, a diskshaped tissue on the mothers uterine wall
The placenta prevents the mothers blood from mingling with that of the developing embryo, acting as a filter to prevent some, but not all, harmful substances that might be present in the mothers blood from reaching the embryo

Prenatal Development

The embryonic period from weeks 3 to 8

Teratogens harmful agents or substances that can cause malformations or defects in an embryo or a fetus;
Known teratogens include:
1. 2. 3. 4. Exposure to radiation Toxic industrial chemicals, such as mercury and PCBs Diseases, such as rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, and AIDS Drugs taken by the mother, such as alcohol, cocaine, and heroin

The Embryo

1 month old Embryo

Teratogens
Cocaine and Heroin: Miscarriage, prematurity, birth defects Alcohol: Fetal alcohol syndrome, motor development problems Smoking: Reduces oxygen flow, increases CO2, increases odds of prematurity, low birthweight, and miscarriage

Prenatal Development
The third month is the beginning of the fetal period, the final and longest stage of prenatal development
By the end of the third month, the fetus can move its arms, legs,

mouth, and head During the fourth month, the mother experiences quickening she can feel the fetus moving By the fifth month, the fetus has distinct sleep-wake cycles and periods of activity During the sixth month, the fetuss brain activity becomes similar to that of a newborn baby During the final two months, the fetus will double in weight, gaining an additional three to four pounds

Fetal Development

3 month old male Fetus

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Initially, the newborns behavior is mostly limited to reflexes that enhance his chances for survival.

Some major newborn reflexes:

1. The rooting reflex the infant turns toward the source of the touch and opens the mouth 2. The sucking reflex just touching the newborns lips evokes this reflex 3. The grasping reflex the baby will grip your fingers so tightly that he or she can be lifted upright

In addition, the newborns senses vision, hearing, smell, and touch are keenly attuned to people,

helping the infant quickly learn to differentiate between the mother and other humans

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Vision is the least developed sense at birth
Optimal viewing distance for the newborn is about 6-12 inches
The perfect distance for a nursing baby to easily focus on his mothers face and make eye contact

Newborns respond with increased alertness to the sound of human voices

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Physical development
At birth, the newborns brain is 25% of its adult

weight
Body weight is only 5% of its adult weight

Newborns enter the world with an estimated 100

billion neurons
After birth, the brain continues to develop rapidly
The number of dendrites increases dramatically during the first two years of life The axons of many neurons acquire myelin: the white, fatty covering that increases a neurons communication speed

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Physical development

The basic sequence of motor skill development during infancy is universal, but average ages can be a little deceptive
Each infant has his or her own:
1. genetically programmed timetable of physical maturation and 2. developmental readiness to master different motor skills Like rolling over, sitting up, and standing

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Social and personality development
Forming close social and emotional relationships with

caregivers is essential to the infants physical and psychological well-being

Temperamental qualities: Babies are different

Inborn predispositions to consistently behave and react in a certain way define temperament Most researchers agree that temperament has a genetic and biological basis:
although environment can modify a childs basic temperament

In the 1950s Chess & Thomas rated young infants on a variety of characteristics:
such as activity level, mood, regularity, and attention span

Development During Infancy and Childhood

About 2/3 of the babies could be classified into one of three broad temperamental patterns: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up
a.

b.
c.

Easy babies readily adapt to new experiences, generally display positive moods and emotions, and have regular sleeping and eating patterns Difficult babies tend to be intensely emotional, are irritable and fussy, cry a lot, and tend to have irregular sleeping and eating patterns Slow-to-warm-up babies have a low activity level, withdraw from new situations and people, and adapt to new experiences very gradually

About 1/3 of the infants were characterized as average babies because they did not fit neatly into one of these three categories

Temperament
Characteristic ways of responding to the environment that vary from infant to infant

(Data from Thomas, et al., 1970)

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Attachment: forming emotional bonds
Attachment the emotional bond that forms between

infant and caregivers, especially the mother

According to attachment theory, an infants ability to thrive physically and psychologically depends in part on the quality of attachment
In all cultures, the emotional bond between between infants and caregivers is an important relationship:
although there are cultural differences in how the attachment relationship is conceptualized and encouraged

Infants can form multiple attachments

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Depending on the parents, infants can form secure or insecure attachments
Secure attachment occurs when parents are consistently warm,

responsive, and sensitive to their infants needs

Insecure attachment may develop when an infants parents are

neglectful, inconsistent, or insensitive to the infants moods or behaviors

VIDEO Attachment
The Human Experience, segment 21

Development During Infancy and Childhood

The most commonly used procedure to measure attachment, called the Strange Situation, was developed by Ainsworth

And is typically used with infants between 1-2 years old

1. The mother stays with the child for a few moments, 2. She then departs, leaving the child with the stranger 3. After a few minutes, mother returns, spends a few minutes in the room, 4. She then leaves, and returns again
Psychologists assess attachment by observing the infants behavior toward the mother during the Strange Situation procedure

Development During Infancy and Childhood

The securely attached infant will use the mother as a secure base from which to explore the new environment, periodically returning to her side;
Will show distress when mother leaves and will greet her warmly when she returns. The mothers easily soothe securely attached babies

An insecurely attached infant is less likely to explore the environment, even when the mother is present and may appear either very anxious or completely indifferent
Such infants tend to ignore or avoid their mothers when they are present Some become extremely distressed when the mother leaves the room and, when reunited, they are hard to soothe and: may resist their mothers attempt to comfort them

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Language development

By the time children reach three years of age, they have learned:
a. approximately 3,000 words and: b. the complex rules of their language

According to linguist Noam Chomsky, every child is born with a biological predisposition to learn language any language
That is, they possess what he calls a universal grammar:
a basic understanding of the common principles of language organization

Development During Infancy and Childhood

At birth, infants can distinguish among the speech sounds of all the worlds languages
By 10 months, they distinguish only the speech sounds that are present in the language to which they have been exposed

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Motherese: encouraging language development

People in every culture use a style of speech called motherese, or infant directed speech, with babies
Motherese is characterized by:
a. b. c. d. e. Distinct pronunciation, A simplified vocabulary, Short sentences, A high pitch, and Exaggerated intonation and expression

Development During Infancy and Childhood

The cooing and babbling stage of language development

In virtually every culture, infants follow the same sequence of language development, and at roughly similar ages
1. Around 3 months infant begins to coo 1. Around 5 months infant begins to babble
Infants all over the world use the same sounds when they babble, including sounds that do not occur in the language of their parents and other caregivers

1. Around 9 months infant begins to babble more in the sounds specific to their language
Babbling seems to be a biologically programmed stage of language development

Development During Infancy and Childhood

The one-word stage of language development
Long before babies become accomplished talkers, they

understand much of what is said to them.

Thus, they have a comprehension vocabulary (words they understand) that is much larger than: their production vocabulary (the words they can say)

Around their first birthday, infants produce their first real words
Usually referring to concrete objects or people that are important to the child Such as mama, dada, or ba-ba (bottle) During the one-word stage, babies use a single word and vocal intonation to stand for an entire sentence
ba-ba = I want my bottle

Development During Infancy and Childhood

The two word stage of language development
Around their second birthday, infants begin putting

words together to construct a simple sentence

Such as Mama go, & Where kitty,

These utterances include only the most essential

words,
but basically follow a grammatically correct sequence

Children move beyond the two-word stage at around

2 years of age
Language production and comprehension increase dramatically thereafter

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Gender-role development

Gender refers to the cultural and social meanings that are associated with maleness or femaleness
a. Gender roles behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that a given culture designates as either masculine or feminine b. Gender identity a persons psychological sense of being male or female

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Between the ages of 2 and 3, children can identify themselves and other children as boys or girls,
although the details are still a bit fuzzy for them

From about 18 months to the age of 2 years, sex differences in behavior begin to emerge
Toddler girls play more with soft toys and dolls,
and ask for help from adults more than toddler boys do

Toddler boys play more with blocks and transportation

toys (trucks and wagons),

and play more roughly

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Explaining gender roles: Two contemporary theories
1. 2.

Social learning theory gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling Gender schema theory children actively develop mental categories/schemas (mental representations) for masculinity and femininity Gender schemas:
Influence how people pay attention to, perceive, interpret, and remember gender-relevant behavior Seem to lead children to perceive members of their own sex more favorably than members of the opposite sex Help children to readily assimilate new information

Piagets Stages
According to Piaget, children progress through four distinct cognitive stage
1.

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

2.
3. 4.

Preoperations (2-7 years)

Concrete Operations (7-12 years) Formal Operations (12 and up) As a child progresses to a new stage, his/her thinking is qualitatively different

Piagets Stages
Sensorimotor
Understand the world through senses and motor actions Develop object permanence the idea that an object still exists even if it cant be seen CD ROM: Obj. Perm. (#15)

Piagets Stages
Preoperative (before logic)
Symbolic thought ability to use words, images, and symbols to represent the world Thinking is egocentric (the inability to take another persons perspective)

Piagets Stages
Concrete Operations
Can do logical operations

Understand reversibility
Can do conservation two equal quantities remain equal even if the appearance of one has changed

Piagets Stages
Formal Operations:
Can do abstract & hypothetical reasoning

Development During Infancy and Childhood

CD ROM: Piagets Conservation Task (#18)
Studying Piagets theory
Generally, scientific research has supported Piagets

most fundamental idea:

That infants, young children, and older children use distinct cognitive abilities to construct their understanding of the world

Other aspects of Piagets theory have been criticized

Development During Infancy and Childhood

I. II. III.

Three criticisms of Piagets theory

Inaccurate assessment of object permanence Piagets stages are not as universal as he believed Underestimation of the impact of the social and cultural environment on cognitive development

Development During Infancy and Childhood

I.

Criticisms of Piagets theory

Today, many researchers believe that in assessing object permanence during infancy, Piaget confused:
motor skill limitations with: cognitive limitations Bailargeon used visual tasks, rather than manual tasks to challenge Piagets belief regarding the age at which infants acquire object permanence
3 month-old infants looked longer at a carrot that cannot be seen through a window Showing object permanence much earlier than Piaget thought

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Criticisms of Piagets theory
II.

Piagets stages are not as universal as he believed

Researchers have found that many adults display abstracthypothetical thinking only in limited areas of knowledge,
And some adults never display formal operational thought processes

Some developmental psychologists emphasize the information-processing model of cognitive development

Focuses on the development of fundamental mental processes like attention, memory, and problem solving Cognitive development is viewed as continuously changing over the lifespan

Development During Infancy and Childhood

Criticisms of Piagets theory
III. Piaget underestimated the impact of the social and

cultural environment on cognitive development

Russian psychologist Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is strongly influenced by social and cultural factors
Such as the support and guidance that children receive from parents, other adults, and older children

Cross-cultural studies show that cognitive development is strongly influenced by:

the skills that are valued and encouraged in a particular environment

Vygotskys View
Cognitive ability falls in the "Zone of Proximal Development"

Zone of Proximal Development Kids performance without help Kids performance with help

Adolescence
A transitional stage between late childhood and the beginning of adulthood, during which:
1. 2.

sexual maturity is reached identity is explored

Physical and sexual development

Puberty tends to follow a predictable sequence for each sex
1. Internally, puberty involves the development of the primary sex characteristics The sexual organs that are directly involved in reproduction, such as the females uterus and the males testes 2. Externally, puberty involves the development of the secondary sex characteristics Characteristics not directly involved in reproduction, but still signal sexual maturity Such as changes in height, weight, and body shape, appearance of body hair, voice changes, and in girls, breast development

Adolescence

Some statistics:
1. 2.

Females are typically about two years ahead of males in terms of physical and sexual maturation The adolescent growth spurt the period of marked acceleration in weight and height gains
Occurs about two years earlier in females than in males

3.

Menarche a females first menstrual period, typically occurring around age 12 or 13

May take place as early as 9-10 or as late as 16-17 Drive much of the adolescents interest in sexuality,
although social and cultural factors also have an influence

4.

During early and middle adolescence, the physical changes of puberty:

5.

Age is a good predictor of when teenagers typically begin various sexual behaviors

Adolescence
Social development

As a general rule, when parent-child relationships

have been good before adolescence,

they continue to be relatively smooth during adolescence

However:
Relationships with friends and peers become increasingly more important Peer relationships tend to reinforce the traits and goals that parents fostered during childhood

The Adolescents Peers

Give feedback on social behavior Provide an objective standard for self-comparison

Teach social skills

Adolescence
Identity formation: Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development

Identity a persons definition or description of himself or herself

Including values, beliefs, and ideals that guide the individuals behavior
Eriksons theory of psychosocial development consists of eight stages throughout the lifespan
Believed that the key psychosocial conflict facing the adolescent is identity versus identity diffusion 1. The adolescents path to successful identity development begins with identity diffusion 2. This is followed by a moratorium period 3. Gradually, the adolescent arrives at an integrated identity

Ericksons Stages of Psychosocial Development Stage

Age
0-1 1-3 3-6 6-Puberty Adolescence Young Adult Middle-Age Old Age

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair

Adolescence
The development of Moral Reasoning

The aspect of cognitive development that has to do with the way an individual reasons about moral decisions The most influential theory of moral reasoning was proposed by Kohlberg,
whose theory proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning: 1. Preconventional - avoiding punishment/maximizing gain 2. Conventional - social roles, rules, and obligations 3. Postconventional - internalized legal and moral principles Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms to conventional standards of society Each level has two stages that represent different degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning

Adolescence
1. The responses to children under 10 reflect preconventional moral reasoning

Based on self-interest avoiding punishment and maximizing personal gain

2. Beginning in late childhood and continuing through adolescence and adulthood, responses typically reflect conventional moral reasoning

Emphasizes social roles, rules, and obligations

3. Postconventional moral reasoning is guided by internalized legal and moral principles:

that protect the rights of all member of society

Kohlbergs Theory

Post-Conventional Level: Conventional Level: Preconventional Level:

Stage 1 -- Punishment avoidance is 5 Protecting both society 3 Behavior that pleases

and individual is others "right"is "right "right Stage 2 -- Authorities & rulesthe 6 Universal principles 4 Whatever benefits determine what's determinesis "right" individual "right" "right"

% Moral Statements

(Data from Kohlberg, 1963)

Adolescence
Criticisms of Kohlbergs theory
1. Research was done on all males, but theory was

applied to males and females

Gilligan model is based on an ethic of individual rights and justice, which is a more common perspective for males
She developed a model of womens moral development that is based on an ethic of care and responsibility

2. Some cross-cultural psychologists argue that

Kohlbergs stories and scoring system reflect:

a Western emphasis on individual rights, harm, and justice that is not shared in many cultures

Adult Development
Physical changes
Our unique genetic blueprint greatly influences the unfolding of

certain physical changes during adulthood Such changes vary significantly from one person to another
For example, menopause (the cessation of menstruation that signals the end of reproductive capacity in women) may occur anywhere from the late thirties to the early fifties

Staying mentally and physically active and eating a proper diet

can both slow and minimize the degree of physical decline associated with aging Physical strength typically peaks in early adulthood (the 20s and 30s) Strength and endurance gradually decline in middle adulthood (40s to mid 60s) Physical strength and stamina decline further and faster during late adulthood (mid 60s on)

Adult Development
Social development
In his theory of psychosocial development, Erikson described

two fundamental themes that dominate adulthood: love and work

According to Erikson, the primary psychosocial task of early adulthood is to: form a committed, mutually enhancing, intimate relationship with another person During middle adulthood, the primary psychosocial task becomes one of generativity: The need to contribute to future generations through your children, your career, and other meaningful activities

Adult Development
The focus of adult friendships is somewhat different for men and women
Female friends tend to:
confide in one another about their feelings, problems, and interpersonal relationships

Male friends typically:

minimize discussions about relationships or personal feelings or problems;
Instead, male friends tend to do things together that they find mutually interesting, such as activities related to sports or hobbies

Adult Development
Establishing a committed relationship takes on a new urgency in adulthood:
getting married and starting a family are the traditional

tasks of early adulthood

Today, young adults are postponing marriage so they can finish their education and establish a career

As a general rule, we tend to be attracted to and marry

people who are similar to us on a variety of dimensions,

Including physical attractiveness, social and educational status, ethnic background, attitudes, values, and beliefs

Age of First Marriage

(Data from Census Bureau, 1994)

Adult Development
The transition to parenthood
Marital satisfaction tends to decline after the birth of the first child
It tends to rise again after the children leave home

Adult Development
The nature of intimate relationships and family structures varies widely in the US
In the 1990s well over 3 million unmarried couples

were living together More than half of all first marriages end in divorce
Thus, remarrying and starting a second family is not unusual

It may be that any relationship that promotes the

overall sense of happiness and well-being for the people involved is a successful relationship

U.S. Households

Reasons for Divorce

Adult Development
Careers in adulthood
1.

Researchers have found that close to 1/3 of people in their late twenties and early thirties:
do not just change jobs within a particular field,
but completely switch occupational fields

2.

Dual-career families have become increasingly common

Multiple roles seem to provide both men and women with a greater potential for:
increased feelings of self-esteem, happiness, and competence; The critical factor is not the number of roles that people take on, but the quality of experiences on the job, in the marriage, and as a parent

Late Adulthood and Aging

The average life expectancy:
for men is about 72 years old; for women, it is about 79 years

The majority of older adults live healthy, active, and self-sufficient lives
The number of older adults in the US has been gradually increasing over the past several decades

Late Adulthood and Aging

Cognitive changes
Psychologist Schaie and his colleagues have

conducted longitudinal studies:

following some 5,000 people as they have aged to learn what happens to intellectual abilities
Schaies findings: general intellectual abilities gradually increase until the 40s, Then become relatively stable until about 60, When a small but steadily increasing percentage of older adults experience slight declines on tests of general intellectual abilities Schaie found that those who were better educated and engaged in physical and mental activities throughout older adulthood: showed the smallest declines in mental abilities

Late Adulthood and Aging

Social Development
The activity theory of aging
Psychosocial theory that life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when:
people maintain the level of activity they displayed earlier in life

Along with satisfying social relationships, the prescription for

psychological well-being in old age:

includes achieving what Erikson called Ego Integrity
The feeling that ones life has been meaningful, vs. Despair feelings of regrets or bitterness about past mistakes, missed opportunities, or bad decisions; a sense of disappointment in life

Often the themes of ego integrity or despair emerge as older

adults engage in life review

Thinking about or retelling their life story to others

Living Arrangements

Living Arrangements

The Final Chapter: Dying and Death

Attitudes toward dying and death are as diverse in late adulthood as they are throughout the lifespan
In general, anxiety about death tends to peak in middle adulthood,
then decrease in late adulthood

The Final Chapter: Dying and Death

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross interviewed over 200 terminally ill patients and proposed that the dying go through five stages
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Denial of death Anger at the notion of dying Bargaining making a deal with doctors, relatives, or God Depression Acceptance

Further research indicates that individuals who are dying do not progress through a predictable sequence of stages

Dying is as individual a process as is living People cope with the prospect of dying much as they have coped with other stresses involved in living