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Figure from:Public accountability

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PUBLIC MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY Secondly, accountability forums increasingly adopt individual strategies of accountability. They are not satisfied with corporate or hierarchical liability, with calling only the agency or its minister to account, but also turn to individual officials. This rupture with the Weberian doctrine started in military and penal law in the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials after the Second World War. The excuse of superior orders lost much of its legitimacy, first in the military sphere, but gradually also in the civil service (Bovens 1998: 122, 153). Nowadays, in many European countries individual public managers cannot always hide behind their agency or their superiors and can be held accountable by civil courts or sometimes even by penal courts for their personal contributions to organizational miscon- duct. Parliamentary committees of inquiry are not satisfied with the official view of the department, but do not hesitate to summon individual civil servants to be questioned in their hearings (Barberis 1998: 453, 466).

Figure 2 PUBLIC MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY Secondly, accountability forums increasingly adopt individual strategies of accountability. They are not satisfied with corporate or hierarchical liability, with calling only the agency or its minister to account, but also turn to individual officials. This rupture with the Weberian doctrine started in military and penal law in the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials after the Second World War. The excuse of superior orders lost much of its legitimacy, first in the military sphere, but gradually also in the civil service (Bovens 1998: 122, 153). Nowadays, in many European countries individual public managers cannot always hide behind their agency or their superiors and can be held accountable by civil courts or sometimes even by penal courts for their personal contributions to organizational miscon- duct. Parliamentary committees of inquiry are not satisfied with the official view of the department, but do not hesitate to summon individual civil servants to be questioned in their hearings (Barberis 1998: 453, 466).

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