Wireless Sensor Networks

Automation of greenhouse environment using simple timer-based actuators or by means of conventional control algorithms that require feedbacks from offline sensors for switching devices are not efficient solutions in large-scale modern greenhouses. Wireless instruments that are integrated with artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms and knowledge-based decision support systems have attracted growers’ attention due to their implementation flexibility, contribution to energy reduction, and yield predictability. Sustainable production of fruits and vegetables under greenhouse environments with reduced energy inputs entails proper integration of the existing climate control systems with IoT automation in order to incorporate real-time data transfer from multiple sensors into AI algorithms and crop growth models using cloud-based streaming systems. This chapter provides an overview of such an automation workflow in greenhouse environments by means of distributed wireless nodes that are cu...

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Critical Infrastructures, such as energy, banking, and transport, are an essential pillar to the well-being of the national and international economy, security and quality of life. These infrastructures are dependent on a spectrum of highly interconnected information infrastructures for their smooth, reliable and continuous operation. The field of protecting such Critical Information Infrastructures, or CIIP, faces numerous challenges, such as managing the secure interaction between peers, assuring the resilience and robustness of ...

The paper shows the design of a 2 Mb/s wireless IR experimental modem using DPSK modulation. This modem is suitable for LAN and data communications in office environments using both diffuse and quasidiffuse IR beams. The paper focuses on optical transmitter and receiver design, due to the optical power and sensitivity limitations in such links

In recent years, due to the rapid growth of sensor technology and wireless communication, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have been applied to various applications. Nevertheless, sensor nodes are highly energy constrained, because of the limitation of hardware and the infeasibility of recharging the battery under a harsh environment. Therefore, energy consumption of sensor nodes has become a popular issue. The purpose of this paper is to achieve energy-efficient object tracking for an arbitrary topology in WSNs. Object tracking typically contains two basic operations: update and query. Most research only considers the update cost during the design phase, or adjusts the structure by taking the query cost into consideration in the second round. We aim to construct an object tracking tree with minimum communication cost, including both update and query costs. This problem is formulated as an integer programming problem. The

Environmental Monitoring Systems and Sensors systems have increased in importance over the years. However, increases in measurement points mean increases in installation and maintenance cost. Not to mention, the measurement points once they have been built and installed, can be tedious to relocate in the future. Therefore, the purpose of this Masters thesis is to present a project called "A Wi-Fi based Smart Wireless Sensor Network for an Agricultural Environment" which is capable of intelligently monitoring agricultural conditions in a pre-programmed manner. The proposed system consists of three stations: Sensor Node, Router, and Server. To allow for better monitoring of the climate condition in an agricultural environment such as field or greenhouse, the sensor station is equipped with several sensor elements such as Temperature, humidity, light, air pressure, soil moisture and water level. In addition investigation was performed in order to integrate a novel planar electromagnetic sensor for nitrate detection. The communication between the sensor node and the server is achieved via 802.11g wireless modules. The overall system architecture shows advantages in cost, size, flexibility and power. It is believed that the outcomes of the project allow for opportunities to perform further research and development of a Wi-Fi based Wireless Sensor Network that is a portable and flexible type of sensing system for an Agricultural Environment. Anthony Wade for their help on technical matters and invaluable comments towards the implementation of the project. And finally I would like to thank my beloved parents for their unconditional love and support. Thank you for providing me with the opportunities that have brought me to where I am at present.

Background • Approaches to IP integration of WSNs so far: Pure TCP/IP solutions: sensor nodes implement the TCP/IP stack (or a compatible set of protocols such as 6LoWPAN in 802.15.4 networks); and Gateway solutions: System Architecture and Networking PAGE 3 6/30/2010 • One node acts as an application layer gateway (e.g. base station), to make the lower layer protocols from both networks (e.g. TCP/IP, IEEE 802.15.4) transparent and to route information. • Sensor nodes implement the TCP/IP stack (or a compatible protocols such as 6LoWPAN in 802.15.4 networks)

Advancement in MEMS technology, networking and embedded microprocessors have led to the development of a new generation of a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) that can operate in unattended and harsh environment depending upon application. WSN consist of large number of power-conscious devices called sensor nodes that detect and observe any physical phenomenon and can be used in a wide range of applications. Underlying topology plays an important role in the performance of the Wireless Sensor Network. Depending upon the application, deployment is performed either deterministically or randomly. WSN suffers from a lot of issues that includes energy conservation, scalability, latency, computational resources and communication capabilities. Energy efficiency is critical issue in Wireless Sensor Networks as nodes are equipped with limited power supply and nodes that bypass most of the traffic deplete their energy faster that leads to decreased network lifetime. Incorporating clustering in the network improves scalability, increase energy efficiency and reduces redundancy. A new clustering approach for WSN has been discussed that includes load balancing and improves energy efficiency by precise selection of CH's. Analysis and simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Wireless sensor networks are small, inexpensive and flexible computational platforms, that have found popular applications in various areas including environmental monitoring, health care and disaster recovery. One fundamental question is how to place the nodes in the network so that complete coverage of the monitored area is achieved. In this paper, we use techniques from discrepancy theory that accurately represent the uncovered area using just a few discrete points, to make sure that every point in the network is covered by at least k sensors, where k is calculated based on user reliability requirements. Our technique is fully distributed, deploying a low number of sensors, and minimizes the communication costs. Our experiments demonstrate that our technique is highly effective in achieving a reliable restoration of a given sensor network area.

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN) consist of a certain number of sensors that interact to send the sensed data to the sink node and perform collaborative task. Most UWSN choose acoustic as a communication medium for wireless transmission. However, electromagnetic waves are also offer a great merit in special underwater environment such as shallow water. UWSN is significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks in many aspects such as mobility of sensor nodes due to water current, propagation delay and propagation loss. These distinctions feature of underwater sensor network pose many new challenges for delivering information from sensor nodes to sink node effectively in UWSN. To achieve reliable data transfer in underwater sensor network scenarios, a new event MAC protocol need to be developed to provide energy efficient and reliable upstream data transfer.

Sharing and reliable dissemination of information in future battlefield environments willpresent unprecedented Information Management (IM) challenges. The expected proliferation of airborne tactical sensors and nontraditional Intelligence, Surveillance & Reconnaissance (ISR) assets will introduce exceptional volumes of data into the battle space. The emergence of tactical radios that support wireless Internet Protocol (IP), and improved bandwidth and processing resources will fundamentally change the way that our warfighters and systems process and share information. It is essential that hardware and software approaches to manage this data, and reliably disseminate it to the war fighter are developed to address these emerging challenges. This is the focus of Aer, an AFRL internal project that is researching, developing, and testing information management (IM) approaches with this set of tactical challenges in mind The Aer capabilities are intended for deployment on Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS). This paper discusses the research we are conducting to evaluate representative UAS hardware coupled with a tactical information management software prototype codenamed "Dino" within the mission-level context of the Aer project. The initial results ofour research will be presented andfuture research directions will be outlined.

Advances in wireless personal area networks have made the practical deployment of various services possible, which until a few years ago was considered extremely costly or labor intensive. We build such a wireless sensor network for precision agriculture where real time data of the climatological and other environmental properties are sensed and relayed to a central repository. The architecture comprises of three distinct sections-(a) the sensor-nodes (b) the wireless mesh network and (c) the actuation components. The sensors are selected based on the properties suited for the most common crops and we identify four such attributes. The sensor network is based on the IEEE-802.15.4 standard and we develop a new static routing algorithm suited for the sensing application. The algorithm overrides the deficiency of the Hierarchical Routing scheme inherent in the ZigBee specification where the C skip addressing algorithm limits the possible depth of the network topology due to address wastage. The new algorithm maintains the hierarchical network topology and thus ensures routing at its optimal best. The algorithms for both addressing and routing are provided. The actuation components are also a part of mesh network and are activated wirelessly for controlling irrigation and fertigation.

One of the major applications of underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASN) is ocean environment monitoring. Employing data mules is an energy efficient way of data collection from the underwater sensor nodes in such a network. A data mule node such as an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) periodically visits the stationary nodes to download data. By conserving the power required for

Growing convergence among mobile computing devices and embedded technology sparks the development and deployment of "context-aware" applications, where location is the most essential context. In this paper we present LANDMARC, a location sensing prototype system that uses Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology for locating objects inside buildings. The major advantage of LANDMARC is that it improves the overall accuracy of locating objects by utilizing the concept of reference tags. Based on experimental analysis, we demonstrate that active RFID is a viable and cost-effective candidate for indoor location sensing. Although RFID is not designed for indoor location sensing, we point out three major features that should be added to make RFID technologies competitive in this new and growing market.

We investigate the idea of using nodes with controllable mobility as intermediate relays for reducing the power consumption in a network of mobile wireless sensors. We present the relay deployment problem, which is to optimally position the relay nodes in the network so as to minimize the power consumed in communication. We discuss and evaluate a localized solution methodology that computes the optimal position and movement of the relay nodes based on the information pertaining to the active data flows and the mobility patterns of the sensors in the network. Results from a preliminary simulation study indicate that deployment of relay nodes can result in considerable energy savings. We also outline some of the issues that need to be addressed in deploying such mobilitycontrollable relay nodes in a real network.

Providing an efficient security for wireless sensor network is a crucial challenge which is made more difficult due to its broadcast nature and restrictions on resources such as energy, power memory usage, computation and communication capabilities. The Reactive Jammer Attack is a major security threat to wireless sensor networks because reactive jammer attack is a light weight attack which is easy to launch but difficult to detect .This work suggest a new scheme to neutralize malicious reactive jammer nodes by changing the characteristic of trigger nodes to act as only receiver. Here the current approach attempts to identify the trigger nodes using the group testing technique, which enhances the identification speed and reduces the message complexity of the status report sent periodically between the sensor nodes and the base station.

We present a multi-objective optimization methodology for self-organizing, adaptive wireless sensor network design and energy management, taking into consideration application-specific requirements, communication constraints and energy-conservation characteristics. A precision agriculture application of sensor networks is used as an example. We use genetic algorithms as the optimization tool of the developed system and an appropriate fitness function is developed to incorporate many aspects of network performance. The design characteristics optimized by the genetic algorithm system include the status of sensor nodes (whether they are active or inactive), network clustering with the choice of appropriate clusterheads and finally the choice between two signal ranges for the simple sensor nodes. We show that optimal sensor network designs constructed by the genetic algorithm system satisfy all application-specific requirements, fulfill the existent connectivity constraints and incorporate energy-conservation characteristics. Energy management is optimized to guarantee maximum life span of the network without lack of the network characteristics that are required by the specific application. Parameter symbols in GA methodology J 1 Operational energy OE J 2 Communication energy CE J 3 Battery capacity penalty BCP J 4 Uniformity of measurements -J 0 4 Mean relative deviation of measurement points MRD J 5 Sensors-per-CH error SCE J 6 Sensors out of range SORE J 7 Spatial density error SDE

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have been identified as a promising technology that will allow people and machines to interact with their environment in a revolutionary way. These networks, however, are facing limitations such as energy constraints of the sensor and difficulties in reprogramming the actual network. To address these limitations we propose a novel agent middleware. Namely In-Motes can be considered as an intelligent network which is deployed with no pre-installed application. Mobile agents are injected into the network, then migrate and clone across it, following specific rules and performing application specific tasks. By doing so, each mote is given a certain degree of perception, cognition and control, forming the basis of its intelligence. Linda-like tuplespaces and federated system architecture are proposed as the means for collaboration and coordination of the agents. In order to make the network more robust, certain behavioural rules are proposed taking inspiration from a community of bacterial strains. These preserve each agent’s certain degree of autonomy and identifies a highly coordinated architecture for them.

Tea production is a major component of the Rwandan economy, thus improving tea cultivation has a large potential economic impact. Tea farming is typically on a large scale, making monitoring by visual inspection inefficient. We propose introducing low-cost WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) technology to provide tea farms with an efficient means to continually monitor soil conditions, tea leaf health, weather etc. throughout the farm. In this paper, we describe the background of tea plantation monitoring, the major issues facing tea farmers, our proposed WSN solution, and preliminary experimental results obtained in the field. We believe that similar technologies could be beneficent in tea growing areas not just in Rwanda but in other countries with similar conditions.

Vehicle classification is a demanding application of Wireless Sensor Networks. In many cases, sensor nodes detect and classify vehicles from their acoustic and/or seismic signature using spectral or wavelet based feature extraction methods. Such methods, while providing good results are quite demanding in computational power and energy and are difficult to implement on low-cost sensor nodes with limited resources. In this work, we investigate the use of a time-domain encoding and feature extraction method, to produce simple, fixedsize matrices from complex acoustic and seismic signatures of vehicles for classification purposes. Classification is accomplished using an Artificial Neural Network and a basic, L1 distance, archetype classifier. Hardware implementation issues on a prototype sensor node, based on an 8-bit microcontroller, are also discussed. For evaluation purposes we use real data from DARPA's SensIt project, which contains various acoustic and seismic signatures from two different vehicle types, a tracked vehicle and a heavy truck.

A wireless network consisting of large number of small sensors with low-power transceivers. These devices rely on battery power so that; improvement in the energy of these networks becomes important. Wireless sensor network (WSN) require various power management protocols to reduce the power consumption. In this paper we study that different number of clustering algorithm leads to different network performance on the energy balancing, energy consumption and network lifetime. We propose a Multi-hop Hierarchical Stable Election Protocol (MHSEP) for wireless sensor networks to enhance the network lifetime and avoid the formation of energy holes. Classical clustering protocols assume that all the nodes in a system are equipped with the equal amount of energy and as a result, network cannot take full advantage of the presence of node heterogeneity in system. Our proposed protocol is a heterogeneous-aware protocol to increase the time-interval before the death of first node (we refer to a...

Multicore embedded systems introduce new opportunities and challenges. Scaling of computational power is one of the main reasons for a transition to a multicore environment. Parallel design patterns, such as Map Reduce, Task Graph, Thread Pool, Task Parallelism assist to derive a parallel approach for calculating the Fast Fourier Transform. By combining these design patterns, a robust application can be obtained. The key issues for concurrent calculation of a Fast Fourier Transform are determined at a higher level avoiding low-level patch-ups.

The RFID technology is becoming ever more popular in the development of ubiquitous computing applications. A full exploitation of the RFID potential requires the study and implementation of human–computer interaction (HCI) modalities to be able to support wide usability by the target audience. This implies the need for programming methodologies specifically dedicated to support the easy and efficient prototyping of applications to have feedback from early tests with users. On the basis of our field-working experience, we ...

Routing protocols in wireless sensor networks are generally focused on hierarchical infrastructures, for energy saving reasons. In this paper, we intend to give a taxonomy of these approaches identifying three criteria of classification: the assumptions, the algorithms and their evaluation. We classify projects based on these parameters and we also draw a uniform view over them, which may provide a basis of comparison for different routing protocols built atop hierarchical WSN infrastructures.

The development of Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) in recent years, researchers are in it. The topics studied by many researchers are energy consumption, coverage and connectivity in WSN. This paper will discuss WSN in the presence of a simple obstacle or resistor. The LEACH protocol algorithm is used and modified in which there is an obstacle or obstacle with multi sink. We propose an algorithm based on line intersections to improve the original LEACH algorithm with multi sink. The simulation results show the modified LEACH algorithm will work better than the original LEACH in the presence of multi-sink based on energy consumption and loss of transmission data. Future research will have arbitrary obstacle modifications.

Wireless sensor and actor networks (WSANs) pose stringent network efficiency requirements in order to sustain feasibility. The feasibility of such a network specifically depends on the latency and energy efficiency that the communication protocol stack achieves. This paper presents an investigation into performance gains for the WSAN communication protocol stack that are achieved by adopting a crosslayer paradigm that facilitates interaction between multiple layers towards network efficiency optimization with regards to latency and energy.

P2P mesh-pull live video streaming applications-such as CoolStreaming, PPLive, and PPStream-have become popular in the recent years. In this paper, we examine the stream pollution attack, for which the attacker mixes polluted chunks into the P2P distribution, degrading the quality of the rendered media at the receivers. Polluted chunks received by an unsuspecting peer not only effect that single peer, but since the peer also forwards chunks to other peers, and those peers in turn forward chunks to more peers, the polluted content can potentially spread through much of the P2P network. The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, by way of experimenting and measuring a popular P2P live video streaming system, we demonstrate that the pollution attack can be devastating. Second, we evaluate the applicability of four possible defenses to the pollution attack: blacklisting, traffic encryption, hash verification, and chunk signing. Among these, we conclude that the chunk signing solutions are most suitable.

The network topology has a significant impact on the performance of collection protocols in wireless sensor networks. In this paper, we introduce an unobtrusive methodology to quantify the impact of the topology on the performance of collection protocols. Specifically, we propose a protocol-independent metric, the Expected Network Delivery, that quantifies the delivery performance that a collection protocol can be expected to achieve given the network topology. Experimental evidence obtained with two collection protocols on numerous topologies on testbeds shows that our approach enables a systematic evaluation of protocol performance.

This paper considers a multiple-input multipleoutput (MIMO) orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) wireless network contaminated by Middleton Class A impulsive noise, which is one of the major sources of performance degradation in many wireless systems, including sensor networks. In this scenario, the conventional linear zero-forcing (ZF) equalizer does not perform satisfactorily, since the diversity order does not monotonically increase with the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In order to overcome such a problem, we synthesize an improved linear ZF equalizer, which mitigates, in the minimum mean output-energy (MMOE) sense, the impulse noise contribution at the equalizer output. Specifically, the proposed equalizer exploits the fact that the noise samples can be spatially correlated in compact multi-antenna receivers, i.e., when the antenna elements cannot be sufficiently spaced apart due to size constraints. Numerical simulations are performed, aimed at comparing the performances of the proposed ZF-MMOE equalizer with those of competing approaches.

Ultra-wideband (UWB) has been proposed for physical layer standard for high speed wireless personal area networks (WPAN). It has emerged as cost effective and reliable alternative to traditional wireless technologies in WPANs. This paper describes low complexity high data rate Ultrawideband system based on Wimedia communication protocol. It intends to evaluate the performance of Wimedia-UWB wireless networks communication for spatial and aeronautic systems. The paper suggests a simulation model using NS-2 simulator to assess the feasibility of such networks and analyses it performance by providing high data-rate wireless communication.

— User equipments (UEs) offloaded from the MeNBs to the PeNBs via cell range extension (CRE) bias in a co-channel deployment suffered severe interference. The severity of the downlink interference varies significantly with the change in the CRE bias. The baseline approach for Interference mitigation technique based on time domain muting (TDM) of resources by MeNBs used trial and error technique which is causing resource wastage and is practically not feasible. Proposed here is a Model for TDM based on estimated cell load conditions and symbol efficiency (SE) as metrics to determine the muting ratio of resources. System level simulation was conducted to validate the throughput performances and the MeNBs-PeNBs resource trade-offs of the proposed method. Compared to the baseline (centralized) approach, the proposed decentralized TDM algorithm exhibited optimal throughput performance and adapted to the change in CRE bias with better trade-offs.

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This paper is about the wireless sensor network in environmental monitoring applications. A Wireless
Sensor Network consists of many sensor nodes and a base station. The number and type of sensor nodes
and the design protocols for any wireless sensor network is application specific. The sensor data in this
application may be light intensity, temperature, pressure, humidity and their variations .Clustering and
routing are the two areas which are given more attention in this paper

Sensors in a wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are having tendency to fail, due to the energy depletion, hardware failures, environmental conditions etc. Fault tolerance is one of the critical issues in WSNs. The existing fault tolerance mechanisms either consume significant extra energy to detect and recover from the failures or need to use additional hardware and software resources. The proposed algorithm enhances the lifetime of a sensor nodes shut down and it depends on ladder diffusion algorithm combined with the genetic algorithm. It can result in fewer replacements of sensor nodes with more reused routing paths and also increases the number of active nodes, reduce the rate of data loss with reduced energy consumption.

The consumption of energy increases due to population increased day by day. This is necessarily in each step of life. Energy resources are of two types, one is renewable energy sources and other is non renewable energy sources. But we know that non renewable sources will exhausted. The importance of renewable sources cannot be underestimated. According to utilization of renewable sources , the fundamental point is impact on environment. In this paper we discuss about the some pros and cons of renewable sources and future trends. In recent years, the more prices of fossil fuels and greenhouse effects have built the opportunities in the production of renewable energy resources. Renewable energy is considered a more better source of fuel than nuclear power now a days because they are more safe than non renewable energy sources.

Abstract— With the continuous development of the wireless technology, securing wireless sensor networks became more and more a crucial but also a demanding task. In this paper we propose a combined strategy that is meant to discover malicious nodes within a wireless sensor ...

Divergent modulation schemes have been proposed for the Internet of Things (IoT). Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) technologies are gaining unprecedented acceptance in IoT application of sensor networks. Chirp Spread Spectrum (CSS) is a prominent modulation technique proposed for LPWAN. Chirps can traverse long distance and are resilient to noise and Doppler effects. Noise resilience along with transmission range and low power requirement makes CSS a preferred modulation scheme for sensor networks. LoRaWAN TM , with its physical (PHY) layer using CSS, has emerged as the widely accepted LPWAN solution. By using CSS modulation with orthogonal spreading factors (SF), LoRa offers wide coverage to LPWAN applications while supporting a high volume of devices. However, scalability performance of CSS has not been inadequately modeled. As with the suitability of the modulation scheme, there are concerns on how chirps interact with the surrounding as the number of deployments bursts out into higher volumes. We evaluate CSS at ISM band 868 MHz for spreading factor 7 to 12 at bandwidth 125 kHz for performance and scalability. Simultaneous transmissions were simulated with repeated iterations and conclusions are arrived on collisions rate, packet error rate, and bit error. Suitability of using CSS for sensor networks for future deployments is commended.

Ad hoc sensor networks are used in different hostile environments, like forests, battle fields, etc. The nature of these surroundings makes power recharging of the network devices very difficult or even impossible. Therefore, energy conservation is one of the main concerns of such systems. As most of these systems consist of different procedures resided in sensors that communicating by means of RPC, placing related codes near each other can extremely reduce total energy utilization.

Despite the availability of the sensor and smartphone devices to fulfill the ubiquitous computing vision, thestate-of-the-art falls short of this vision. We argue that the reason for this gap is the lack of an infrastructure to task/utilize these devices for collaboration and coordination. We propose that Twitter can provide an "open" publish-subscribe infrastructure for sensors and smartphones, and pave the way for ubiquitous crowd-sourced sensing and collaboration applications. We design and implement a crowd-sourced sensing and collaboration over Twitter, and showcase our system in the context of two applications: a crowd-sourced weather radar, and a participatory noise-mapping application. Our results from real-world Twitter experiments give insights into the feasibility of this approach and outlines the research challenges in sensor/smartphone integration to Twitter.

Wireless distributed microsensor systems will enable fault tolerant monitoring and control of a variety of applications. Due to the large number of microsensor nodes that may be deployed and the long required system lifetimes, replacing the battery is not an option. Sensor systems must utilize the minimal possible energy while operating over a wide range of operating scenarios. This paper presents an overview of the key technologies required for low-energy distributed microsensors. These include power aware computation/communication component technology, low-energy signaling and networking, system partitioning considering computation and communication trade-offs, and a power aware software infrastructure.