Water Engineering

Thirty-seven years of fisheries records covering a fishing area of 6231 ha in the lower Havel River, Germany, have been analysed to address two issues: (1) detection of the effects of habitat bottlenecks caused by extreme floods and droughts on adult fish assemblage; and (2) evaluating the appropriateness of commercial fisheries statistics in testing the habitat bottleneck concept. Time series analyses of the data were first tested for autocorrelations and then classified using the CHAID (Chi-squared Automatic Interaction Detector) and C&RT (Classification and Regression Trees) algorithms. The significant environmental predictors revealed by these segmentation procedures were used in cross-correlations with various time series of fisheries yields. No single hydraulic flood parameter was significantly correlated with fisheries yield but two drought parameters were. The strongest predictor of native fish species was the minimum discharge during the spawning season (March to June). Although total fisheries yield typically increased in years with low flows, probably because of higher catch efficiencies, the yields of pike and pikeperch significantly decreased in the following two years. By comparison, significantly higher catches of pike, perch, asp, burbot, and ide were recorded in the three years following periods of sustained higher base flows. Our findings suggest that habitat bottleneck effects on fish assemblages have an important role in influencing fish community structure and do require further study. Information on habitat bottlenecks will contribute to the setting of ecological flow requirements and sustainable fisheries in large rivers systems.

Recently, a novel approach to a highly sensitive and quantitative detection of rare earth element (REE) ions including La3+, Eu3+ and Tb3+, by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, has been reported. The detection of REE ions is based on the catalytic nature of REE ions targeting the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), thus monitoring of the ions can be achieved by reading the level of intact DNA by PCR. Despite of its high sensitivity (at ppb to ppt levels), the conventional PCR-based REE detection protocol requires certain length of time (1-2 hours). In the present study, we modified the PCR-based REE detection protocols by employing the high-speed PCR, and performed the automated and rapid detection of La3+ in small-sized aqueous samples within 5min.

The use of biocides, particularly chlorine, in reverse osmosis (RO) desalination is widely practiced despite documented evidence that although biocides may be advantageous in controlling microbial counts in the water, in some cases they can actually exacerbate biofouling of the membranes. The adverse effects, associated with widespread biocide use, have spurred the need for finding alternative RO pre-treatment disinfection methods. Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection, and specifically medium pressure ultraviolet (MP-UV) disinfection has been considered a possible alternative and is now gaining recognition as a viable disinfection method applicable to RO desalination; however documentation on the effects of UV pre-treatment on RO membrane biofouling is scarce. This paper reports the findings from a four month field study conducted at a brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) desalination plant, treating groundwater, in the north of Israel, in which MP-UV was applied as a pre-treatment disinfection step prior to RO desalination. The plant contains two double stage desalination trains that operate in parallel -one train served as a reference, while in the other an Atlantium HOD™ MP-UV system was installed. Both trains were run in parallel, and for the duration of the study, all normalized performance parameters were collected and microbial counts monitored. At the end of the run previously replaced sacrificial membranes, situated in the front of the first stages, were autopsied and various biofilm analyses were conducted to elucidate cell/extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) content and microbial speciation. The overall results suggest that MP-UV pre-treatment prolonged the train performance, which manifested itself in a lower relative normalized permeate flux decline vs. the train which received water without MP-UV pre-treatment (11% vs. 17%, respectively). Significantly less EPS was found on the RO membrane which received MP-UV treated water. The differences in biofilm thickness and cell density counts (cells/cm 2 ) between the two membranes were notable, in favor of UV pre-treatment, yet less significant. The MP-UV pre-treatment also had a substantial effect on biofilm community composition; the RO membrane that received MP-UV disinfected water exhibited a biofilm in which the diversity was reduced by 30% and more, and did not contain certain phylogenetic groups that were detected on the RO membrane that received water without MP-UV pre-treatment. It can be concluded that 152 T. Harif et al. / Desalination and Water Treatment 31 (2011) 151-163 pre-treatment disinfection using MP-UV may be a promising option for combating biofouling of RO membranes and prolonging operation of the trains between cleaning regimes.

Due to limited water resources in Iran, the optimal use of water resources and improvement of water use efficiency is necessary, especially in agriculture. In current work, cropping pattern optimization was carried out in Mehran Plain of Ilam Province based on water resources, cultivated area and biodiversity constraints using genetic algorithm. The optimization model was applied to three different scenarios based on a combination of different constraints. The results showed that the cropping pattern in 2016-17 was not optimal and the biodiversity index was low. The resulting profit and biodiversity in all scenarios are higher than the current situation in Mehran plain. The amount of profit increase in combinations one, two and three is 70, 101 and 132% higher than the profit of the existing cropping pattern, respectively, and in terms of biodiversity, the Shannon-Wiener criterion is more than twice as high as the Shannon-Wiener criterion in the existing simple cropping pattern in all scenarios. Wheat, canola, sesame and okra are strongly represented in most optimal cropping patterns. Wheat has the largest acreage and tomato and alfalfa and corn have the least acreage due to the low profit and high water consumption of these products. Crops such as corn, sesame, okra and cucumber are strongly represented in the optimal cropping patterns and can be used as alternatives to the current crops to increase agricultural profits.

1. Urbanisation is an important cause of eutrophication in waters draining urban areas. We determined whether benthic algal biomass in small streams draining urban areas was explained primarily by small-scale factors (benthic light, substratum type and nutrient concentrations) within a stream, or by catchment-scale variables that incorporate the interacting multiple impacts of urbanisation (i.e. variables that describe urban density and the intensity of drainage or septic tank systems). 2. Benthic algal biomass was assessed as chlorophyll a density (chl a) in 16 streams spanning a rural-urban gradient, with both a wide range of urban density and of piped stormwater infrastructure intensity on the eastern fringe of metropolitan Melbourne, Australia. The gradient of urban density among streams was broadly correlated with catchment imperviousness, drainage connection (proportion of impervious areas connected to streams by stormwater pipes), altitude, longitude and median phosphorus concentration. Catchment area, septic tank density, median nitrogen concentration, benthic light (photosynthetically active radiation) and substratum type were not strongly correlated with the urban gradient. 3. Variation in benthic light and substratum type within streams explained a relatively small amount of variation in log chl a (3-11 and 1-13%, respectively) compared with between-site variation (39-54%). 4. Median chl a was positively correlated with catchment urbanisation, with a large proportion of variance explained jointly (as determined by hierarchical partitioning) by those variables correlated with urban density. Independent of this correlation, the contributions of drainage connection and altitude to the explained variance in chl a were significant. 5. The direct connection of impervious surfaces to streams by stormwater pipes is hypothesised as the main determinant of algal biomass in these streams through its effect on the supply of phosphorus, possibly in interaction with stormwater-related impacts on grazing fauna. Management of benthic algal biomass in streams of urbanised catchments is likely to be most effective through the application of stormwater management approaches that reduce drainage connection.

In recent 20 years the environmental issues regarding
environmental problem like hazardous waste, global climate change,
stratospheric ozone depletion, groundwater contamination, disaster
mitigation and removal of pollutant have become the focus of
environmental attention.
In this Dissertation work the quality of ground waters from
Indiranagar Gorakhpur and its environs was conducted between
December, 2016 to March, 2017. This study was undertaken to
determine physical and chemical parameter of ground water sources
(shallow and deep hand pump) in Indiranagar Gorakhpur, is as a
result physical parameters (pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS),
Electrical Conductivity (E.C), Temperature, turbidity) and chemical
parameters (Alkalinity, total Hardness, Acidity, chloride, fluoride) in
water resources were determined. Water samples were collected from
10 sampling points including 7 shallow hand pumps and 3 deep hand
pumps (India mark hand pump). The result was compared with WHO,
and IS: 10500-2012 standards. The usefulness of these parameters
(Physico-chemical) in predicting ground water quality
characteristics were studied. Thus an attempt has been made to find
the quality of ground water in Indiranagar area of Gorakhpur
suitable for drinking purposes or not, and what its impact on human
health.

This paper reports the formulation and application of a framework of catchment-level water resource management indicators designed to integrate environmental, economic and social aspects of sustainability. The framework of nine indicators was applied to the River Dee and River Sinos catchments in Scotland and Brazil, respectively, following an indicator selection process that involved inputs from water management professionals in both countries, and a pilot exercise in Scotland. The framework was found to capture a number of key sustainability concerns, and was broadly welcomed by water resource managers and experts as a means of better understanding sustainable water resource management. Issues relating to poor water quality and public water supply were particularly prominent in the findings for the Sinos, while findings for the Dee suggested that more attention might be focused on building institutional capacity and public participation in catchment management. The use of some proxy indicators was required in both catchments due to poor data availability, and this problem may hinder the further development of indicator frameworks that attempt to better integrate environmental, economic and social dimensions of sustainability. r

Population increase and the improvement of living standards brought about by development will result in a sharp increase in food demand during the next decades. Most of this increase will be met by the products of irrigated agriculture. At the same time, the water input per unit irrigated area will have to be reduced in response to water scarcity and environmental concerns. Water productivity is projected to increase through gains in crop yield and reductions in irrigation water. In order to meet these projections, irrigation systems will have to be modernized and optimized. Water productivity can be defined in a number of ways, although it always represents the output of a given activity (in economic terms, if possible) divided by some expression of water input. The authors identified five expressions for this indicator, using different approaches to water input. A hydrological analysis of water productivity poses a number of questions on the choice of the water input expression, since in many cases irrigation return flows can not be considered as a net water loss from a basin-wide perspective. A number of irrigation modernization and optimization measures are discussed in the paper. Particular attention is paid to the improvement of irrigation management, which shows much better economic return than the improvement of the irrigation structures. In closed basins the hydrological effects of these improvements may be deceiving, since they will be accompanied by larger crop evapotranspiration and even increased cropping intensity. As a consequence, less water will be available for alternative uses.

Drinking water is one of the basic service of environment. Drinking water supply in most of the municipalities of Nepal are generally inadequate in terms of overall coverage and water supply are intermittent with access to only a few hours each day. On the event of global awareness on the impacts of climate change, wider attention has to be drawn on the water supply sector in Nepal as of numerous vulnerable attributes. This study aimed at initiating a research on hydrological analysis and the implications of climate change impacts in the balance of water supply and demand. An assessment on the potential impacts of the climate change on the availability of water and its distribution to the households was made. The catchment area was delineated and the trend of discharge for the 23 years was analyzed. The available discharge at the intake sites was estimated using the available downstream discharge data and the catchment area ratio and with the discharge measurement in the field. Based on the finding on the discharge variation and potential demand in future the hydrological analysis focused in water supply and demand was done, the discharge variation and potential climate change impacts, strategic recommendations to incorporate the attributes on the technical design, construction and operation of the water supply scheme were made. Increase in the size of urban population, depletion of water resources, water conflicts in the downstream add complexity on the issue at stake. This would make the system more robust and resilient to cope with the climate change risks and ensure that they are within the acceptable range. This will ensure the sustainability of the project and help to reduce water conflict in the downstream.

Soilless cultivation is a method that permits the achievement of high yields, good control of plant growth and development, and is currently in practice all over the world. Several irrigation systems have been developed for containerized-crops (drip-irrigation and subirrigation). Irrigation system can significantly impact the effect of irrigation water salinity on crop performance. Comparing the subirrigation and drip-irrigation systems using saline and non-saline nutrient solutions can be useful for developing optimal management strategies in semiarid regions which are characterized by the shortage of good quality water. A greenhouse experiment was carried out during the spring-summer season to determine the influence two irrigation systems (drip and subirrigation) and two nutrient solution concentrations (2.0 and 4.1 dS m À1 ) on substrate electrical conductivity (EC e ), growth, yield, fruit quality (dry matter, carbohydrates, protein, Vitamin C), yield water use efficiency (WUE y ) and tissue mineral composition of zucchini squash (Cucurbita pepo L.). At the mid and at the end of the trial, plants grown with the subirrigation system resulted in a higher EC e in the upper and lower parts of the substrate in comparison to the drip-irrigation system, especially at an EC of 4.1 dS m À1 . At an EC of 2.0 dS m À1 , zucchini yield (total and marketable) was 13% lower with the subirrigation than with the drip-irrigation systems but offered several benefits: higher fruit quality (dry matter, glucose, fructose, starch and total carbohydrates content) and WUE y . The yield reduction with www.elsevier.com/locate/agwat Agricultural Water Management 82 (2006) 99-117 subirrigation was more pronounced at an EC 4.1 dS m À1 , where the zucchini production with subirrigation was lower by 36% than with drip-irrigation. Increasing salinity from 2.0 to 4.1 dS m À1 improved fruit quality (high content of dry matter, reduced sugars, starch, total carbohydrates, and Vitamin C) in both irrigation systems. The results indicate that the choice of the irrigation system appears to be of foremost importance especially when using low quality irrigation water. Unlike subirrigation, using drip-irrigation with saline solution (4.1 dS m À1 ) would be an attractive strategy in limiting yield reduction, taking advantage of the quality effect of saline water and improving the WUE y .

Moringa oleifera is a single family of shrubs and trees that is cultivated in the whole of tropical belt. It belongs to the family Moringaceae and is one of the 14 known species. The tree has been described as a multipurpose tree for life. It has, in recent times, been advocated as an outstanding indigenous source of highly digestible protein, Ca, Fe, Vitamin C, and carotenoids suitable for utilization in many of the developing regions of the world where undernourishment is a major concern. The seeds are eaten green, roasted, powdered and steeped for tea or used in curries. It has found applications in medicinal uses, as cosmetics, in food supplements, and in water treatment. One of the active ingredients in the M. oleifera seed has been identified as a polyelectrolyte. Its use for coagulation, co-coagulation, or coagulant aid has been a subject of investigation in many parts of the world. Softening of water with M. oleifera has also been identified to have potential advantage since it is accompanied by very low reduction in alkalinity, which is required to provide the necessary buffering capacity to achieve required treatment objectives. Many researchers have also identified the presence of an active antimicrobial agent in Moringa oleifera seeds. This paper presents a review of these various applications of M. oleifera seeds extract in water treatment and highlights the areas requiring further investigations.

Hydropower is based on a simple process, taking advantage of the kinetic energy freed by falling water. In practice, this process is applied in many different ways depending on the electrical services sought and the specific site conditions. Accordingly, there is a wide variety of hydroelectric projects, each providing different types of services and generating environmental and social impacts of different nature and magnitude. This article illustrates the necessity to evaluate each hydroelectric project in relation to the services it provides and to compare electricity supply projects on the basis of equivalent services provided to society. The impoundment and presence of a reservoir stand out as the most significant sources of impacts. However, a reservoir also provides the highest level of electricity supply services: it is the most efficient means of storing large amounts of energy and a hydroelectric plant has the capacity of releasing this energy in quantities that can be adjusted instantly to electricity demand. Furthermore, a reservoir allows for many other uses besides energy storage such as the cost-effective development of run-of-river plants downstream with little environmental impacts.

This research work evaluates the impact of stormwater infiltration on the removal of organics, solids, nitrogen and phosphorus in a LECA-based horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland. Stormwater runoff for the period between January 2008 and June 2010 (30 months) was estimated for the drainage basin of the Vila Fernando wastewater treatment plant (constructed wetland system) and it was observed proportionality between the increase in surface runoff and the infiltration flow rate that reached the plant. The average stormwater infiltration rate that reached the plant was 67.4 m(3) d(-1) (77% of the influent flow rate into the plant). The 30 month monitoring campaign set up at one of the reed beds showed that stormwater infiltration led to a high variation of the hydraulic loading rate (HLR) throughout the bed, which affected its performance in the removal of organic matter, suspended solids and nitrogen. For a HLR below 20 cm d-1 the removal efficiencies for BOD5, COD and TSS doubled. The removal of nitrogen was too low and was associated with the weak development of nitrifying biofilm and the poor growth of reeds. However, it was observed a good relationship between the applied and removed loads for most of the parameters, which seems to indicate that the organic, solid, nitrogen and phosphorus loading rates influenced the respective removal rates. The use of a bed material with high specific surface area, such as LECA, can only improve the treatment capacity of horizontal subsurface flow systems if the organic and solid loading rates, as well as the HLR, can be effectively controlled.

Using cascades and drops existing in flow path has a history of 3000 years. Particularly, Roman engineers employed
stepped spillways with the same idea in several countries; however, there are few information about the hydraulic
performance of aqueducts. Most of these channels have flat long cross sections with low torsions (variable slope) such
that they can encompass cascade and steep spillways or dopshaft. Given that there are few studies conducted on
dropshafts, the present paper attempted to discuss about such structures in flow path and water transmission lines as well
as introducing the existing principles and relations and present, the obtained results of designing though Flow3D. The
obtained error percentage was about 20% which is acceptable for numerical studies.

Abstract
Details are given herein, of the development of an equation for predicting the longitudinal dispersion coefficient in riverine flows, based on 81 sets of measured data, and obtained from 30 rivers in the USA. This equation relates the dispersion coefficient to the hydraulic and geometric parameters of the flow and has been derived using dimensional and regression analysis, with a high correlation coefficient (i.e. R2=0.84). The formulation has been compared with many other existing empirical equations, frequently used to predict the longitudinal dispersion coefficient in riverine flows, with the comparisons based on four different statistical methods. These statistical comparisons have shown that the new equation appears to be more accurate than the other equations considered. The new dispersion equation was then linearly combined with a similar equation recently proposed by Seo and Cheong (J. Hydraul. Eng. ASCE 124 (1998) 25) and this combined equation was then also analysed using statistical methods. The existing empirical equations used to estimate the longitudinal dispersion coefficient and the new equations proposed in this study were included in the advective dispersion equation to predict the suspended sediment concentrations at three sites in the Humber Estuary sited along the northeast coast of England. The average percentage errors between the predicted- and measured-field data for the proposed new dispersion equations were less than those obtained using the previously documented equations.

Most arid and semi-arid regions of the Southern-Indian peninsula experience frequent drought. To combat this, historically many water recharge structures, such as tank cascade systems, have been constructed. However, in recent years, performance of these tanks, especially for irrigation and groundwater recharge, is limited due to impacts of external factors that are not scientifically understood. This study, for the first time, aimed to explore spatio-temporal variation of water mass balance components and their impact on the Vandiyur tank cascade system (VTCS) in the city of Madurai, India. Study estimated water mass balance components for rural, peri-urban, and urban catchments across VTCS. Catchment-specific algorithms and water budget equation were used to estimate the volume of hydrological parameters. Additionally, land use/land cover maps were developed to understand the significance of using a water balance approach in understanding the behavior of hydrological components go...

The vital importance of a reliable and safe drinking water supply makes efficient risk management necessary for water utilities. Risks must be assessed and possible risk-reduction measures evaluated to provide relevant decision support. The World Health Organization emphasises the use of an integrated approach where the entire drinking water system, from source to tap, is considered when assessing and managing risks. Integrated risk assessments are important in order to avoid overlooking interactions between subsystems and events and to minimise sub-optimisation of risk-reduction measures. Methods for integrated risk assessment are, however, limited. A dynamic fault tree method is presented that enables quantitative, integrated risk assessment of drinking water systems. An approach for approximate dynamic fault tree calculations has been developed to minimise computational demand. It is shown how the method can be used to evaluate uncertainties and provide information on risk levels, failure probabilities, failure rates and downtimes of the entire system and its subsystems. The fault tree method identifies where risk-reduction measures are needed most and different risk-reduction alternatives can be modelled, evaluated and compared. The method is combined with economic analysis to identify the most cost-effective risk-reduction alternative. Integrated risk assessments of drinking water systems are commonly performed using risk ranking, where the probability and consequence of undesired events are assessed using discretised scales. There is, however, no common, structured way of using risk ranking to prioritise riskreduction measures. Two alternative models for risk-based, multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) for evaluating and comparing risk-reduction measures have therefore been developed. The MCDA models are based on risk ranking, they can consider uncertainty in estimates and include criteria related to, for example, different risk types and economic aspects. In summary, this thesis provides methods for integrated risk assessment that make it possible to prioritise risk-reduction measures. It is concluded that the methods provide relevant decision support for efficient risk management in water utilities.

Reclaimed water from small wastewater treatment facilities in the rural areas of the Beira Interior region (Portugal) may constitute an alternative water source for aquifer recharge. A 21-month monitoring period in a constructed wetland treatment system has shown that 21,500 m3 year−1 of treated wastewater
(reclaimed water) could be used for aquifer recharge. A GIS-based multi-criteria analysis was performed, combining ten thematic maps and economic, environmental and technical criteria, in order to produce a suitability map for the location of sites for reclaimed water infiltration. The areas chosen for aquifer
recharge with infiltration basins are mainly composed of anthrosol with more than 1 m deep and fine sand texture, which allows an average infiltration velocity of up to 1 m d−1. These characteristics will provide a final polishing treatment of the reclaimed water after infiltration (soil aquifer treatment (SAT)),
suitable for the removal of the residual load (trace organics, nutrients, heavy metals and pathogens).
The risk of groundwater contamination is low since the water table in the anthrosol areas ranges from 10 m to 50 m. On the other hand, these depths allow a guaranteed unsaturated area suitable for SAT. An area of 13,944 ha was selected for study, but only 1607 ha are suitable for reclaimed water infiltration.
Approximately 1280 m2 were considered enough to set up 4 infiltration basins to work in flooding and
drying cycles.

Singapore has depended on water imports from neighbouring catchments in Johor, Malaysia since its founding. Despite long-standing cooperation, economic, environmental, and political forces are destabilizing cross-strait water flows. Johor has historically been water-abundant, but increased water consumption from economic development and population growth in combination with water stresses from drought and pollution have reduced its dry season water catchments. Johor has taken recent far-reaching measures including requesting additional water supply from Singapore, rationing supply to residential and commercial users, and requesting RM660 million in federal support for construction of a new dam at Sungai Ulu Sedili, and there appears to be bilateral support for continuing the Singapore-Malaysia water trade. However, water stress in Johor risks undermining the bedrock of the relationship, and creates the need for redoubled regulatory diligence and clear-minded diplomacy by authorities in Johor, Singapore, and Kuala Lumpur.

The aim of this study carried out in Van, Turkey was to determine the most suitable irrigation frequencies and quantities in summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L. cv. Sakız) grown under field conditions. Irrigation quantities were based on pan evaporation (E pan ) from a screened class-A pan. Irrigation treatments consisted of two irrigation intervals (I1: 5 days; I2: 10 days), and three pan coefficients (K cp 1: 0.45; K cp 2: 0.65 and K cp 3: 0.85). Plants were adequately watered from seed sowing to first fruit emergence, then, scheduled irrigations were initiated at 5-and 10-day intervals.

The North African countries located in the Southern Mediterranean region are among those that experience the most severe water shortages and face the greatest challenges in terms of future water availability. Most of these countries have a semi-arid climate with limited and variable rainfall. Moreover, much of the rainfall is lost through evaporation (Hamdy and Lacirignola, 1999). During the last three decades, it has been common policy in these North African countries to develop irrigation infrastructure and to control renewable water resources to increase stability in terms of water supply (Ben Mechlia, 2004). Agriculture, being an important component of food security policies, is the main consumer of this supplied water. On average, agriculture accounts for around 80% of total water consumption in Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria. However, these supply policies have led to substantial use of irrigation water at heavily subsidized cost (Thabet et al., 2005). In the early 1980s, there was a shift in agricultural water policies towards demand management. This alternative has been widely applied at a global level and involves rationalization of the current demand, instead of increasing the current supply. In other words, this means greater efficiency in the allocation and use of water in agriculture. Rainfall in Tunisia varies greatly, ranging from an average of less than 100 mm year À1 in the South, to more than 1000 mm year À1 in the extreme north of the country. In the north, however, the topography is mountainous, leaving relatively little cultivable land in the high rainfall areas. As a result, most agricultural activity is undertaken in areas with limited and highly variable rainfall, making irrigation necessary to stabilize or increase production by reducing climatic uncertainty. Currently, almost 385,000 ha (7% of useful agricultural land) are irrigated in Tunisia. The irrigation sector consumes 80% of the available water resources and provides 35% of the agricultural production value, 95% of horticultural crops, 30% of dairy production, almost 22% of agricultural sector exports, and 26% of total agricultural employment (Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, 2004). Moreover, the demand for irrigation water continues to rise, due largely to the development of new irrigation projects and the intensification of irrigation within existing areas. Therefore, during recent decades concerns regarding the efficient use of water resources in the country have increased. These concerns have been addressed in three ways: (i) modernizing the management of collective irrigation systems by enhancing the role played by water users' associations and by promoting user participation in all aspects of management, (ii)

Water demands in the Aegean Islands have increased steadily over the last decade as a result of a building boom for new homes, hotels, and resorts. The increase in water demand has resulted in the disruption of past sustainable water management practices. At present, most freshwater needs are met through the use of the limited groundwater, desalinated seawater, and freshwater importation. Wastewater reclamation, not used extensively, can serve as an alternative source of water, for a variety of applications now served with desalinated and imported water. Three alternative processes: desalination, importation, and water reclamation are compared with respect to cost, energy requirements and longterm sustainability. Based on the comparisons made, water reclamation and reuse should be components of any long-term water resources management strategy. (P. Gikas). 1 Tel.: þ1 530 752 6757; fax: þ1 530 752 7872. 2 Tel.: þ30 282 1037781; fax: þ30 282 1037846.

Straightforward guidelines for deficit irrigation (DI) can help in increasing crop water productivity in agriculture. To elaborate such guidelines, crop models assist in assessing the conjunctive effect of different environmental stresses on crop yield. We use the AquaCrop model to simulate crop development for long series of historical climate data. Subsequently we carry out a frequency analysis on the simulated intermediate biomass levels at the start of the critical growth stage, during which irrigation will be applied. From the start of the critical growth stage onwards, we simulate dry weather conditions and derive optimal frequencies (time interval of a fixed net application depth) of irrigation to avoid drought stress during the sensitive growth stages and to guarantee maximum water productivity. By summarizing these results in easy readable charts, they become appropriate for policy, extension and farmer level use. We illustrate the procedure to derive DI schedules with an example of quinoa in Bolivia. If applied to other crops and regions, the presented methodology can be an illustrative decision support tool for sustainable agriculture based on DI.

The effectiveness of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) for the purification of
sewage was investigated. The study was carried out in the Department of Agricultural
and Biosystems Engineering. Three treatments of water hyacinth replicated two times
were used in the study. These treatments include no water hyacinth (control), 1kg and
2kg water hyacinth plant density cultures. The system was designed based on Completely
Randomized Design (CRD). Sewage samples were collected during the growth of water
hyacinth. Purification of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) on sewage was rapid
during the first three weeks in the sewage cultured with water hyacinth (especially 2kg
water hyacinth plant density) and there was low absorption in nutrients in the last two
weeks when attaining maturity. Parameters such as Cl-, Fe, Cu, Mn, Pb, K, F-, Nitrate and
Sulphate were drastically reduced from 9mg/l to 3.33mg/l, 1.25mg/l to 0.36mg/l, 0.3mg/l
to 0 mg/l, 0.5mg/l to 0.08mg/l, 0.2mg/l to 0.01mg/l, 1.7mg/l to 0.17mg/l, 0.7 mg/l to
0.08mg/l, 8.6mg/l to 0.03mg/l, 17.5mg/l to 6.20mg/l respectively throughout the course
of the study. The purification by water hyacinth had no effect on the bacteriological
parameters (Agar count, E-coli, Coliform). Also, the 2kg water hyacinth plant density
cultured in the sewage purifies more compared to the 1kg water hyacinth plant density
which is moderate and minimal in the control treatment. One way analysis of variance
was used to compare the means of the parameters tested. It shows that parameters like
CO2, Mn, lead and sodium have significant difference between the control treatment with
both the 1kg and 2kg water hyacinth plant density culture while parameters like pH,
magnesium hardness, calcium hardness and calcium total have no significant difference
between the no water hyacinth culture( control) with the 1kg and 2kg water hyacinth
plant density culture. Finally, sewage parameters like BOD, COD, dissolved oxygen, Cu,
F-, nitrate, phosphate, potassium, dissolved solids, suspended solids, sulphate, iron, Cl-
and magnesium total were not affected.

Desde una perspectiva histórico-arqueológica, esto es, manejando información de diversas intervenciones arqueológicas, documentación histórica de archivos y cartografía histórica, se plantea cómo el agua ha sido pieza fundamental a la hora de elegir y desarrollar los distintos asentamientos que se han producido en Alicante desde el Neolítico a época moderna, centrándonos sobre todo en la prehistoria (asentamiento del Tossal de les Basses) y en época tardo-antigua e islámica (laderas del Benacantil), éste último, el espacio en donde luego se consolidó el hábitat hasta nuestro días, subsistiendo hasta bien entrado el siglo XIX con el agua de las mismas fuentes naturales usadas por los musulmanes desde el s. VIII.

Cet article fait suite à une conférence donnée par le premier auteur à l'Académie d'agriculture dans une séance commune avec l'Académie des sciences d'Outre-Mer organisée le 21 mars 2007 sur l'utilisation optimale de l'eau par l'agriculture en zones arides.

"Attend now, and I will explain how rain collects .in the clouds above, and how the showers are precipitated and descend upon. the earth." These words were written two thousand years ago by the Roman poet Lucretius. In his great poem, On the Nature of Things, he ranged over a vast number of subjects that included clouds, rain, thunder, and lightning. But, typical of the
, thinkers of his day, he never put his ideas to the test of experiment.

Su, Su Sondajı, Su Sondajı Nasıl Yapılır? Su Sondajı Yapımında Dikkat Edilmesi Gerekenler, Su Sondajında Çıkarılan Suların İnsan Sağlığı Üzerine Etkileri, Suyun ve Su Kaynaklarının İslam Dinindeki Yeri ve Önemi, Su Sondajı ve Sondajın Tarihçesi ve Gelişimi, Su Sondajına Başlamadan Önce Yapılması Gereken Resmi İşlemler, Su Sondajı Neden Yapılır Veya Yaptırılır? Kaliteli Su Sondajı İçin Gerekli Şartlar Nelerdir? Su Sondajı-Yeraltı Suları-Kuyu Yeri Seçimi ve Kuyu Tasarımı İlişkisi Nasıl Olmalıdır? Su Sondajı Yöntemleri Nelerdir? Su Kuyusu Açma Yöntemleri Nelerdir? Su Sondajının Yapım Aşamaları, Sondaj Açarken Suyun Çıktığını Nasıl Anlarız? Sondaj Suyunun Debisinin Ölçümü, Sondaj Çalışmaları Sırasında Karşılaşılan Sorunlar ve Çözümleri, Sondaj Takım Dizisinin Sıkışması, Sondaj Takım Dizisinin Kopması, Sondaj Takım Dizisinin Çözülmesi, Sondajda Boru Kopmaları, Sondaj Çalışmalarında Kurtarma İşlemlerinin Yapılmasının Nedenleri, Sondaj Çalışmalarındaki Doğal Güçlükler Ve Kurtarma Çalışmaları, Sondaj Çalışmalarında Meydana Gelebilecek Kazalar Ve Alınabilecek Önlemler, Sondaj Çalışmalarında Kullanılan Kurtarma Aletleri, Sondaj Bittikten Sonra Teslim/Teslim Alma ve Metrajın Tespiti, Su Sondajının Maliyeti Ne Kadardır? Nasıl Hesaplanır? Sondaj Kuyusundaki Suyun Azalmasının Nedenleri, Sondaj Bakımı ve Geliştirme, Sondaj Kuyularının İşletmeye Hazır Hale Getirilmesi, Su Sondajı Raporu Örneği, Konya, Jeoloji, Jeoloji Mühendisliği, Jeoloji Yüksek Mühendisi, Türkay Ercan Şengöz. (Türkay Ercan Şengöz tarafından yayımlanan her çeşit harita, bilgi ve belgelerin her hakkı saklıdır. Her ne şekilde ve amaçla olursa olsun bu bilgi ve belgelerin kaynak belirtilmeden kullanılması, yazılı izin alınmadan elektronik, optik, mekanik veya diğer yollarla dağıtılması, çoğaltılması, basılması, değiştirilmesi, paylaşılması, kopyalanması ve internet sitelerinde kullanılması durumunda gerekli hukuki yollara başvurulacak ve yasal işlem başlatılacaktır. Önemle duyurulur. Bu platformda veya diğer platformlarda paylaşmış olduğum tez veya akademik kapsamdaki çalışmalarımın içerisindeki bütün bilgilerin etik davranış ve akademik kurallar çerçevesinde elde edilerek sunulduğunu, akademik çalışmalarımın tez yazım kurallarına uygun olarak hazırlandığını hatırlatıyor, bana ait olan her türlü ifade ve bilginin kaynağına eksiksiz atıf yapılması gerektiğini bildiriyor, sevgi ve saygılarımı sunuyorum.)

Bacterial populations inhabiting pharmaceutical grade water systems were investigated over a fifteen year period. The systems analyzed were mains water, purified and Water-for-Injection (WFI). Samples of water were tested by membrane filtration and the samples cultured using R2A agar. Culture based methods and phenotypic identification methods were used to characterize the isolates. The research was undertaken to produce an in-depth study of the microbiota of pharmaceutical grade water systems. The results presented act as a benchmark for industrial and pharmaceutical microbiologists to review comparable systems against, as well as to present a review of the typical culturable microorganisms recoverable from pharmaceutical water systems.

Simulation models are useful tools for enhancing water management on farm level and optimizing water application efficiency. Focusing on water, as water is the key driver of agricultural production and the critical factor of increasing crop production. Evaluating effects of water saving to optimize water application efficiency under limited conditions to enhance sustainability an (surface drip irrigation and solid-set sprinkler) at the Experimental Farm of d profitability of crop production. HydroCalc model was evaluated under two lateral length (30, 50m) and (0, 0.02) slopes under pressurized irrigation systems Agricultural Production and Research Station, National Research Centre (NRC), El Nubaria, Egypt, (latitude 30.87N, longitude 30.17E and altitude 20 m above sea level). The results obtained declared that: The statistical indicators; the regression coefficient (R² > 0.90) and correlation coefficient confirmed the good performance of HydroCalc in simulating some hydraulic parameters of pressurized irrigation systems. The validation of measured and simulated data clarified it as efficient reliable software to design pressurized irrigation systems to increase the system performance and water application efficiency. The energy savings were (33.18; 27.33%) under slope (0%) and (34.23; 29.54%) under slope (2%) with surface drip irrigation systems when using lateral lengths (30;50m), respectively compared to the solid-set sprinkler irrigation system. It could be concluded to using drip irrigation systems with lateral length 30 m and with slope (2%) downhill for increasing the water application efficiency, decreasing the friction losses along lateral lines and this lead to saving more water head energy.

Population increase and the improvement of living standards brought about by development will result in a sharp increase in food demand during the next decades. Most of this increase will be met by the products of irrigated agriculture. At the same time, the water input per unit irrigated area will have to be reduced in response to water scarcity and environmental concerns. Water productivity is projected to increase through gains in crop yield and reductions in irrigation water. In order to meet these projections, irrigation systems will have to be modernized and optimized. Water productivity can be defined in a number of ways, although it always represents the output of a given activity (in economic terms, if possible) divided by some expression of water input. The authors identified five expressions for this indicator, using different approaches to water input. A hydrological analysis of water productivity poses a number of questions on the choice of the water input expression, since in many cases irrigation return flows can not be considered as a net water loss from a basin-wide perspective. A number of irrigation modernization and optimization measures are discussed in the paper. Particular attention is paid to the improvement of irrigation management, which shows much better economic return than the improvement of the irrigation structures. In closed basins the hydrological effects of these improvements may be deceiving, since they will be accompanied by larger crop evapotranspiration and even increased cropping intensity. As a consequence, less water will be available for alternative uses.

The Australian greenhouse industry is primarily dominated by low-cost hydroponic greenhouses for delivery of water and nutrients to plants to grow a variety of vegetable crops including cucumber and tomato. The nutrient rich drainage water from these greenhouses is generally released into the local environment causing pollution concerns. This study was initiated to investigate the opportunities in recycling drainage water to increase water and nutrient-use efficiency of hydroponic greenhouses and reduce the environmental impact of the drainage water discharge. Results indicated that a total of 4.15 ML/ha of irrigation water was applied during the 13 weeks crop growing period of which 2.56 ML/ha was drained off and 1.59 ML/ha was used to meet the crop evapotranspiration demand. The study showed that the recycling of the drainage water resulted in a 33% reduction in potable water used for irrigation in cucumber production. The drainage water contained 59% applied N, 25% applied P and 55% applied K and illustrated the potential for nutrient recovery and production cost savings through the reuse of drainage water. This case study demonstrates that some relatively simple changes in irrigation practices within greenhouse systems to recycle drainage water can considerably improve sustainability of low-cost hydroponic greenhouses and help minimise the environmental footprint of the greenhouse industry.

The photocatalytic degradation of Toluidine Blue dye (TB) in aqueous solution was investigated under UV light in the presence of magnesium oxide (MgO) as a photocatalyst at different operating parameters. The operating
conditions were photocatalyst dose, initial dye concentration and the pH of the solution. Increasing of photocatalyst dose from 10 to 70 mg enhanced the degradation rate of TB dye. However, the increasing of TB dye concentration from 2 to 8 mg/L negatively affected the degradation rate. It was found that the percent of dye
removal reached the maximum value at high acidic medium. In dark condition, 15 % of dye was adsorbed by MgO. Furthermore, the kinetics involved in the degradation of TB dye was examined and the degradation was found to follow pseudo first order kinetic model.

Drinking water supply is an essential public function but is at the same time exposed to risks. Since a totally risk-free society is not attainable, risks need to be managed efficiently to achieve an acceptable level of risk. A reliable supply of safe drinking water is vital and the World Health Organization emphasises an integrated risk management approach, including the entire drinking water system from source to tap. An integrated approach is important as there are interactions between different parts of a system. Efficient risk management requires appropriate risk analyses to characterise risk and support decision-making. Risk analysis based on an integrated approach facilitates well-informed decision-making and efficient use of resources for risk reduction. However, guidance on methods for integrated risk analysis of drinking water systems is limited. To support risk management of drinking water systems, a method for integrated and probabilistic risk analysis has been developed...

THIS IS NATURE SIGNALING THE END OF DUALITY 
THIS IS HUGE - CHANGE THE ENTIRETY OF CREATION - NO DUALITY ANYWHERE.
IT IS VERY CLEARLY A PREDETERMINED ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS - THIS BUBBLE IS TOO WELL DESIGNED - EUPHORIA CANCELS KARMA