Viking Studies

Versie 2022
De tijd is rijp om de gegevens uit mijn vorig artikel over Rollo nog eens opnieuw te bestuderen. Ondertussen vond ik nog zaken die mijn hypotheses sterker maken. De denen of laaglanders die in die tijd vooral woonden in wat nu Noord-Frankrijk, Vlaanderen en Zeeland is, waren volgens mij de eerste wikings (migranten) die zorgden voor heel wat veranderingen rond de Noordzee en het Kanaal.

For medieval Icelanders, horses were among the most important animals. It should come as no surprise, as they were used for transport, in pagan rites (hippomancy, funerals, sacred horses), eating, and also for sports. These sports were the horse-fights (hestavígs) and horse-racing (skeið). Reading the sagas, one can find a lot of references to horse-fighting. This sport was considered of such importance among medieval Icelanders that laws have been written down regarding this entertainment, yet there is no exact description of how such events were organized. Only by putting all the references together can one endeavor to explain what these horse-fights may have actually been like. In my paper I would like to present the basis for these horse-fights. Their terminology has been frequently misinterpreted, and no critical investigation yet exists into the staging and organization of such events, which would shed light on the meaning and role of this sport to medieval Icelanders. It will be shown that horse-fighting functioned not only as brutal entertainment in itself, but also played a social role in the broader context of inter-district assemblies.

introduction When the existence of different socio-political areas and regional identities in the Baltic Sea region is discussed, one should remember that people did not live their lives in isolation. People, then as now, had social relations that stretched to other regions and societies. These could concern social contacts such as blood brotherhood and marriage alliances, or trade relations and tribute dealings, as well as relations based on common values (Burströ m 1991, 39; Callmer 1991). For the central Baltic Sea region and the Russian river valleys the archaeological material reveals evidence of the existence of diversified interaction. This is apparent not only through the raw material, partially manufactured items, and prestige objects that were mediated between different regions. It can also be seen through the jewellery and the personal belongings that are found far away from where they were manufactured or where the prototype existed. In the following study, the presence of Scandinavian groups in the Baltic Sea region and Russian area provides an example of the interaction that existed. As will be shown, some Scandinavians were involved in activities connected to trade. Since trust is vital for trade being conducted, this article also addresses how trust was created through material culture and how material culture could facilitate interaction between trading actors.

в отечественной науке роль варягов в образовании древнерусского государства оценивается весьма высоко, в частности у исследователей уже практически не вызывает сомнений скандинавское происхождение самой княжеской династии Рюриковичей. Однако на сегодняшний день в так называемом варяжском вопросе наблюдается известное противоречие: при огромном массиве археологических данных, недвусмысленно свидетельствующих об активном присутствии варягов на Руси в X–XI вв., мы располагаем весьма ограниченным количеством лингвистических следов и примет этнокультурного взаимодействия русских и скандинавов в эту эпоху. Данная книга представляет собой опыт историко-филологического разыскания в области культурных контактов Скандинавии и Руси на излете эпохи викингов. Образ идеального правителя, практика обмена дарами, представления о статусе и наследственных правах незаконнорожденного, рассказ о предках как средство характеристики потомков, перекличка личных имен, прозвищ и торжественных панегириков — такова лишь часть тех напряженных точек этого взаимодействия, к которым мы попытались подступиться в нашем исследовании.
The Varangian contribution to the formation of the ancient Russian state is highly
evaluated in the national scholarly tradition, more specifi cally, there are practically
no doubts about the Scandinavian origin of the Rurik dynasty. However, there is
a certain contradiction in the so-called Varangian problem: given a huge body of
archaeological data unambiguously confi rming the active Varangian presence in Rus
in the 10th–11th centuries, we can only have at our disposal a very limited amount
of the linguistic traces of ethnic and cultural connections between Russians and
Scandinavians at that time.
This book presents an attempt at the historical and philological study in the
fi eld of the cultural contacts between Scandinavia and Rus before the very end of the
Viking age. The image of the ideal ruler, the practice of gift exchange, the concepts of
the status and inheritance rights of illegitimate children, a narrative about ancestors
as a way of characterizing descendants, and similarities between personal names,
nicknames and solemn eulogies — these are, to name just a few, the intense points of
this interaction which became the focus of our study.

An undergraduate dissertation examining hogback stones in relation to their wider context using place-names, topgraphy, vernacular poetry, Domesday Book and various narrative sources such as the Historia de Sancto Cuthberto. By these means hogback stones are tied more firmly to the Hiberno-Norse and the wider political and aristoractic context of contemporary northern England, suggesting a greater deal of continuity between pre- and post-Viking society than is often supposed. The importance of examining sculpture with reference to its wider context is also made clear. (Any feedback would be much appreciated.)

This is not just a book about a battle; it is a book about the biggest battle before Hastings 1066.
This is a battle most people have probably never heard of, but it is a battle where five Scottish and Viking kings and seven earls died, somewhere in the kingdom of Northumbria in late 937. As well as royalty, the bones of tens of thousands of ordinary men from Northern England, Scotland and the Viking territories lie buried in a place which, according to the chroniclers, is no longer known.
This book is about that battle and the search to find the long-lost site. Thousands of pages have been written about the Battle of Brunnenburh, but this book is unique. It is written by descendants of a legendary Viking Egill Skallagrimsson. Thousands of pages have been written about Brunnenburh but all of them are written from the perspective of the victor, King Athelstan of Wessex and Mercia. This book is the closest anyone is likely to get to a Northern Viking account.
Even if you have no real interest in the site of the Battle of Brunnenburh this is worth the effort you will put into it this book to understand it. Take a deep dive into the world and beliefs and times of the competing factions in 10 th century England and beyond, and the battle that first unified the United Kingdom.

Since the early days of archaeology, Viking-Age burials and burial customs have attracted much attention. Evocative tales of warriors and their deeds preserved in Old Norse poetry and sagas, and recorded in the historical chronicles of church and court scribes formed the background for the interpretation of some of the most prominent finds, the burials with weapons and horse furnishings. To antiquarians and archaeologists of the nineteenth century, it was almost self-evident that a life so closely tied to warfare and violent expansion abroad would also find expression in the burials of the time, and many of the early discoveries appeared to confirm the view of the Nordic warrior who was expected to arrive with full fighting gear in Valhalla to continue his life amongst the brave warriors of Odin. Since then, the archaeological evidence has increased considerably, providing a far more extensive basis for the study of Viking-Age burial practices today than a century ago. Typological and chronological analyses of individual objects and burials demonstrate the diversity of the weapon burial practice of especially the 10th century. In a period of significant political and religious transition in southern Scandinavia elaborately furnished equestrian burials and weapon burials were one of the means of to demonstrate the position and the political and religious preferences of the Viking elite.
The study is divided into two parts: Vol. 1 Text, including bibliography and site index, and Vol. 2 Catalogue with 24 maps and 70 artefact plates.

The paper compares and contrasts Kaupang and Dublin as two early Viking Age towns. While the importance of Kaupang as a permanent settlement and active trading partner throughout the Scandinavian trade network has only just begun to be understood, Dublin has primarily been understood as an Irish town founded by Scandinavians instead of as a Scandinavian town that gradually became an Irish city. Through the application of central place and network theory, I posit that both served as major nodal points within a well-connected intra- and inter-regional long-distance Scandinavian trade network. Using archaeological field reports, contemporary primary source material, and secondary interpretation, I will examine the two sites side-by-side in order to discuss the key aspects of each town, including chronological history, the physical layouts of the sites and the buildings that were present, the monetary systems in place, the nature of their imports and exports, and the different peoples who inhabited them. In this way, I will reach my conclusion as to why Kaupang failed and Dublin survived.

This MSc thesis contributes new information to and original analysis of the topics of Viking-Age silver hoards and Irish monastic settlements, as well as their respective usefulness for understanding the early medieval Irish economy. Historiography regarding the early medieval Irish economy has been affected by colonial and nationalist myths, creating an image of a rural and subsistence-level society that was poorly integrated into the larger Viking-Age silver economy and primitive in nature. Furthering Revisionist arguments, this thesis challenges these assumptions by demonstrating Irish ownership of silver hoards and the economic roles of monastic settlements (which may have served as proto-urban sites). 
The research entailed a mixed methodological approach. Primarily, data regarding silver hoards and settlements in Ireland (both Irish and Hiberno-Norse) was plotted within a GIS system to allow for distributional analysis. Measurements were taken from the created maps to provide quantitative data, while discovered trends and relationships were qualitatively analyzed within a comprehensive historical context. These methods were complemented with a historical critique of a coin database, allowing for more detailed study of the content of hoard finds.
The results of the analyses revealed a strong relationship between silver hoards and monastic settlements (with mostly coins found at these sites), substantiating the economic significance of the latter. Additionally, many hoards were found inland and deep within independent Irish kingdoms. Few hoards were found to be randomly deposited. Rather, most were associated with either Irish or Hiberno-Norse settlements, as well as borders between kingdoms. Such promising results illustrate the need for more extensive research on both silver hoards and the Early Medieval Irish economy, both of which possess complexities that require further elucidation.

In 2017 a throne-amulet made from bone, once retrieved from the diggings of harbour excavation 1979/80 in Hedeby, was committed to the Wikinger Museum Haithabu. It constitutes the second specimen known from the site and fits well into the larger group of throne-amulets known from south-eastern Scandinavia. The academic discussion of these amulets as devotional pagan objects either in connection with the worship of Óðinn or else as thrones of vǫlur is controversial. The piece from Hedeby harbour does not seem to depict the typical block-chair, though, but is about the first indication for the existence of Viking-age barrel-chairs used continuously until Early modernity.

Late Iron Age boat rituals and ritual boats

The most famous ship burials in Norway are found at Oseberg and Gokstad. Beside the magnificent ships, the rich grave goods of all kinds have made these burials important sources to increase knowledge and adventure the Viking period. A boat is frequently part of the equipment of a burial in late Iron Age in Norway, even if not everywhere and in the same way. There are however various opinions among scholars on the reason for putting a boat in the grave.
The boat or ship is often forming some sort of a coffin for the body, and the place for the burial has been carefully arranged. In the case of Oseberg the funeral including preparations and closing rituals took months. But how should we interpret the boat finds that obvious were part of a ritual, but lack a body and other characteristics of a funeral?

The political structure of Scandinavian society underwent radical change between AD 500 and 1350. Through analyses of c. 170,000 sites of single graves and cemeteries, 1,700 hillforts, and 130 royal sites and manors, this article investigates the emergence of larger law areas and their relation to the peoples and kingdoms in Scandza (i.e. Norway and Sweden). In this period the number of kingdoms was reduced from around thirteen to two. We find 29 peoples in the 6th century mentioned in contemporary written sources (Getica and Widtsith), and these are geographically identified through a big data analysis of prehistoric graves and cemeteries (Kernel Density Estimation). In addition, we have identified thirteen clusters of graves representing other unmentioned groups. The emergence of larger legal entities was a prerequisite for the emergence of the Scandinavian kingdoms. In eastern Scandinavia kingship emerged through the control of major lakes connecting various folklands, while in the west control of trade and transport along the major sailing route (leden) was a driving facor for trans-regional kingship.

Our aim with this paper was to discuss two possible Viking Age and Early medieval wooden hall buildings from Viklem at Ørlandet in relation to the Scandinavian Viking Age halls. To do this we analysed the buildings from Viklem to see to what extent they meet well-established criteria for Viking Age halls in Scandinavia. Since the Viklem halls are the northernmost known examples of such freestanding hall buildings, we have to take local and regional conditions into consideration, such as fundamental geographical factors, political demands and its physical manifestations at Ørlandet and the surrounding areas. Our results showed that the large buildings at Viklem meet many of the criteria that have been established by research in southern Scandinavia. However, we see that the Viklem halls are smaller, and lack the large number of prosperity items that that are associated with most in most of the known halls in the south. We discuss these differences in the perspective of Viklem's l...

Scandinavian women are regularly depicted as warriors, or shieldmaidens, fighting both in international raids and in defending their homes in the popular television series Vikings. But is this portrayal likely to be accurate? Following an examination of the depiction of warrior women in the series, this paper will try to answer this question by focussing on one of the regions that shieldmaidens in the series are shown fighting in, Anglo-Saxon England. England benefits from having primary written sources for the Viking Age, as well as numerous excavations, including the burials of three females with weapons, making them potential shieldmaidens.

In his Lex Castrensis, the twelfth-century Danish writer Sven Aggesen tells the story of the creation of a law that he attributes to Knútr inn ríki (Cnut the Great) as a means of governing his substantial military following of retainers, known as the hirð. As unlikely as it is for Sven to claim that he preserves the law exactly as it was in Knútr's own time, the text's focus on process and punishment raises an intriguing question: can evidence be seen for shifting punitive attitudes and legal exchange in the late Viking-Age period of intense contact, interaction, and accommodation between Scandinavia and the British Isles? This chapter will offer a first step in considering the possibility for the exchange of legal practices and concepts in this context, and present a newly refined picture of England and its Scandinavian neighbours – one which points to sophisticated legal interchange happening much earlier than usually thought.

The purpose of this study is examination of the relation between “music” and “mythology” through a current example, which are kinds of ancient narratives. Within the context of this purpose, “music” is discussed in the first chapter of this study as a cultural value. The nature of music, its functions and the historical development of music are examined. Thus, the adventure of music which lasted from Ancient Greece to modern-day and the change that music has undergone within different periods are revealed. In the second chapter of the study, the “mythology” subject is discussed. In this context, researches are made on the content of mythology, its functions, origin theories and its types. Norse Mythology, which is one of the limitednesses of the study, are examined in terms of its sources and scope. Then, the relation between “music” and “mythology” is questioned, which is examined in detail in the previous chapter. As a result of this questioning, examples are given on the reproductions of Norse Mythology in today’s literature, cinema, television and music. In the third chapter of the study, in an attempt to reveal the relation between mythology and today’s music, reflections of Norse Mythology on metal music are examined. This examination contains Norse mythology, which forms the limitednesses of this study, and Amon Amarth, a contemporary metal band. In the application chapter, nine albums released by Swedish death metal band Amon Amarth are examined using semiological anaylsis technique. In the same chapter, sustentation of analysis is aimed through album titles, lyrics and examples of stage shows of Amon Amarth. Also, the conducted examinations are supported with an interview made in Istanbul, in 03.08.2014, with the vocalist Johan Hegg of Amon Amarth. As a result of the study, it is observed that there is a strong relation between music and mythology. Music and mythology maintain their existence with their changeable structures. Today, the genre which benefits most from mythology and uses it for its own music is metal music.

Key Words: Culture, Music, Mythology, Semiotics, Norse Mythology, Amon Amarth

This article deals with the inscription on a rune-stone fragment discovered in 1985 at Igelsta in Östertälje parish in Södermanland, which according to the author commemorates a man named Øygrīmʀ. This name is very rare and is previously unrecorded in East Scandinavian
sources.

A exemplo da protagonista da série Vikings, do canal History, ganha força a hipótese de mulheres terem lutado em batalhas dos povos nórdicos N° Edição: 522 Texto: Pedro Machado Frossard 13/07/2016 Share on Facebook Tweet on Twitter Lagertha (vivida na série pela atriz Katheryn Winnick, ao centro) chegou a ser líder militar Assim como Lagertha, personagem histórica da série de televisão Vikings, do canal pago History, mulheres livres e guerreiras podem ter se destacado entre os povos vikings. Mesmo sem provas arqueológicas de que elas de fato existiram, essas guerreiras povoam a mitologia nórdica. Mitos femininos estão presentes em documentos, textos e poesias da época. Na série, baseada em lendas norueguesas, Lagertha é esposa do guerreiro viking Ragnar Lothbrok e uma skjaldmö (" donzela de escudo "). Ela vai a batalhas e chega ao posto de duque, tornando-se líder militar. Segundo o Gesta Danorum, livro do século 12 sobre feitos dinamarqueses, de autoria do historiador medieval Saxo Grammaticus, Lagertha era guerreira e reconhecida valquíria (veja quadro ao final da reportagem).

S'ils n'ont pas usurpé leur image d'hommes brutaux, les vikings nous montrent aujourd'hui un nouveau visage. Archéologues et historiens nous les dévoilent ainsi marchands, diplomates, mercenaires ou explorateurs. Au fond, ils n'avaient qu'un seul point commun : partir outre-mer pour s'enrichir, et parfois trouver la gloire. Au contact de dizaines d'autres civilisations, ne rechignant pas aux métissages ni à la conversion au christianisme, ils changèrent le visage de l'Europe entre le VIIIe et le XIe siècle.

Child in exile, Russian warlord, mercenary for the Greek Emperor, Christian warrior in the Holy Land, King of Norway; Harald Hard-ruler was many things in the course of a brilliant and blood-soaked career, but he is mostly remembered today (if he is remembered at all) as the Viking king who scuppered the chances of successful English resistance to the Normans at the battle of Hastings in 1066. But Harald, often regarded as the last of the Viking kings, deserves to be more than a mere footnote to the familiar story of the Norman Conquest. This book, an illustrated retelling of Harald’s life and legend, with factual sections exploring the Viking world, sets out to put that right.

This is essentially a review of part three of a TV dramatization of Danish History (Historien om Danmark), featuring the so-called ‘Viking Age’, where Danish history, it is claimed, reached ‘vertiginous glory’ (svimlende storhed). The review originated in the draft discussion, ‘Vikingerne var ikke danskere og danskerne var ikke vikinger’ (Vikings were not Danes and Danes were not Vikings), which I initiated in academia.edu (April 2017) in frustration over the low scholarly level of the program, with its misuse of the term ‘Vikings’. The term was scattered all over the narrative and used both by the narrator and the two supporting ‘expert’ archaeologists as if the term at the time was synonymous with Scandinavians. This it was not! ‘Vikings’ in contemporary sources simply signified ‘pirates’ and as such it was used about a number of non-Scandinavian ethnicities in both Anglo-Saxon and Norse sources, just as it could be used about pagans, Christians as well as Muslims. Another point taken up is the rather anachronistic suggestion that the Danish king Harald Bluetooth adopted Christianity (cf. the famous runic stone at Jelling) in defence of a German threat.
Frederik Pedersen of University of Aberdeen kindly pointed out that in the printed version the obits for Otto I and Otto II were dated a century too early, 873 and 883, respectively. As the context would suggest the correct the dates are 973 and 983. Never trust yourself!

This articles summarises the various types of island-names in the Northern Isles of Scotland. The vast majority of names are of Scandinavian origin, with a substantial number of  Insular Scots coinages. Only a handful of island-names can be judged to be of pre-Scandinavian origin.

The Viking Era is not covering a broad era, most of the events took place between 800 A.D and 1100 A.D. To make a brief introduction, first we have to know about the etymology of the "Viking" name and who were these violent Vikings? According to Swygart the word Viking means "those who go away", "sea king" or "pirate" and applied for the Norseman who left their home at most in 9th century. Some of them became mercenaries, but most of them became adventurers, raiders and invaders for glory, wealth and pleasing their gods (2016). History.com specifies that Contrary of some concepts of Vikings, there were not any race of Vikings and any particular sense of Vikingness and most of the Vikings come from Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavian territories), also historical records show us that there are Finnish, Estonian and Saami Vikings too. Their differences from Europeans in that time were, firstly they were not civilized in the local understanding of the world and most importantly they were sharing different religious beliefs than Europeans, which was paganism (2009). In this essay I will specify that firstly early Viking raids, secondly conquests and settlements and lastly the influence of Vikings on European Culture and end of the Viking age.

This chapter makes a close reading of a short vignette in Eyrbyggja saga - the attempted forced marriage between the Swedish berserk Halli and Víga-Styrr's daughter Ásdis - exploring the ways that various norms and normative expectations are deliberately manipulated by the characters in question to further their own social goals in the narrative.

'The walrus and the seal in northern seas during the Middle Ages: hunting, exploitation, trade. A text approach'. The sources we have tend to prove that, during the Middle Ages, men fear the sea and the creatures living in it. The walrus, subject of a terminological ambiguity, is no exception to the rule. However, both the walrus and the seal are hunted, for hunters have a more realistic view of these animals. Mainly based on Norse texts, and in particular on Icelandic sagas, this article intends to identify the main features of the hunting of these amphibian mammals in northern seas. While hunting is vital in some areas, it is subject to very restricting rules elsewhere, which can sometimes lead to conflicts. As a matter of fact, northern seas have seen trade become increasingly dynamic during the Middle Ages, in which the walrus and its precious ivory tusks have their place.

The (unedited and error-ridden) manuscript for the paper I gave at the 2016 Nordic Mythology Conference at Berkeley, October 29-30, "Paganism Past". The paper addresses Paganism Past and Ideas of Authenticity, and argues that any ideas of authenticity in the representation of Nordic mythology in Snorri's texts should be abandoned for another approach. My suggestion for an alternative approach is the concept of cultural complexity, in the sense that all sources available to the student of Nordic mythology, be they textual or part of the material culture, should be approached as expressions of the cultural phenomenon 'Nordic mythology', and variation should be addressed through the lens of social or cognitive differences and variations. With this perspective, we can abandon ideas of an authentic version of Nordic mythology; chronological and geographical variation become less essential, and distortions of the material brought about by the conversion process must be considered less interesting than the possibility of the available sources to Nordic mythology representing a plausible and viable system of thought and culture.

This week I take you along a trip, in what appears to be in some respect a sort of the 'Antiques Roadshow' as initiated by the Vikings. The Norsemen weren't any different than us in their desire to hold the past. As the Viking Age is desirable mystery to us, the age of Anglo-Saxon England was captivating their minds in their own way.

This is for sure: the Vikings loved antiquities. It can be seen, per example, on the viking merchant weights.

Cette communication propose de revenir sur le terme « viking » en analysant la notion de piraterie dans les sources norroises. Si les historiens sont familiers des témoignages des victimes de ces pirates du Nord, les sources norroises demeurent encore trop méconnues hors de Scandinavie. Les sagas, chroniques rédigées essentiellement au XIIIe siècle, sont des récits provenant des descendants de ces fameux Vikings et jouissant depuis ces vingt dernières années d’un regain d’intérêt de la part des historiens. 
Le mouvement de piraterie des Vikings, daté approximativement du VIIIe au XIe siècle, marqua profondément le Moyen Âge. De la route de l’ouest (vestrvegr) à la route de l’est (austrvegr), l’œkoumène des Vikings s’étendait de Terre-Neuve à Constantinople et de l’Islande au Maghreb. Ces pirates furent à l’origine de changements dans l’ensemble du monde médiéval : création d’États et de dynasties, consolidation du pouvoir, transfert des richesses, imposition de tributs aux peuples vaincus, explorations, mercenariat, etc. 
Devant la foule de problèmes soulevés par l’étude des Vikings, nous proposons ici de revenir à la notion de piraterie au sein des sources norroises. Nous tenterons tout d’abord de revenir sur la sémantique du mot víkingr et du champ lexical qui lui est associé. Puis à travers divers témoignages issus des sources norroises, nous essayerons de définir les enjeux et modalités de la piraterie vue par les Scandinaves.

Mots-clés : Vikings, piraterie, sagas, histoire maritime.

In this text the authors want to explain the relation between the field in Hunwick as a possible site for the Battle of Brunanburh and four sites closely to the field that are likely to be burial sites for the lost ones in the battle. There is possibly an ancient burial site close to the proposed field and there are three different sites that might relate to three different segments of the invading force. There was a local chapel one mile from the proposed field, there is possibly a Scottish site half a mile from there and another site only half a mile therefrom that could relate to the Danish Vikings from Dublin.  In this paper we look at these sites as well as other possible sites further afield.