Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is an emerging technology for the monitoring of aquatic assets and frequently applied in several domains like underwater information gathering, ocean sampling network, anonymous vehicles, disaster prevention and submarine detection. Recently, UWSNs have been getting significant attention of researchers from both academia and industry. As a result, several studies have been carried out to perform certain improvements in UWSNs techniques, tools, protocols and architectures. In this regard, there is a dire need to investigate and summarize the modern UWSNs trends altogether within a single study. To achieve this, a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) is performed in this article to comprehensively analyze the latest developments in UWSNs. Particularly, 34 research studies published during 2012-2020 have been selected and examined in the area of UWSNs. This leads to the identification of 21 modern routing protocols and 11 tools. Furthermore, 5 different architecture types and 3 communication media technologies are presented in the context of UWSNs. Finally, a comparative analysis of routing protocols is done on the basis of important evaluation metrics. It has been concluded that there exist adequate approaches, protocols and tools for the monitoring of UWSNs. However, the design verification capabilities of existing approaches are insufficient to meet the growing demands of UWSNs. In this context, the findings of this article provide solid platform to enhance the current UWSNs tools and techniques for large and complex networks.

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN), similar to the terrestrial sensor networks, have different challenges such as limited bandwidth, low battery power, defective underwater channels, and high variable propagation delay. A crucial problem in UWSN is finding an efficient route between a source and a destination. Consequently, great efforts have been made for designing efficient protocols while considering the unique characteristics of underwater communication. Several routing protocols are proposed for this issue and can be classified into geographic and non-geographic routing protocols. In this paper we focus on the geographic routing protocols. We introduce a review and comparison of different algorithms proposed recently in the literature. We also presented a novel taxonomy of these routing in which the protocols are classified into three categories (greedy, restricted directional flooding and hierarchical) according to their forwarding strategies.

Serious weaknesses were discovered in WPA2, a protocol that secures all modern protected Wi-Fi networks. An attacker within range of a victim can exploit these weaknesses using key reinstallation attacks (KRACKs). Concretely, attackers can use this novel attack technique to read information that was previously assumed to be safely encrypted. This can be abused to steal sensitive information such as credit card numbers, passwords, chat messages, emails, photos, and so on. The attack works against all modern protected WPA2-Wi-Fi networks. Depending on the handshake mechanism, it is also possible to inject and manipulate data. A solution is proposed to provide the secure handshake by capturing and analyzing the EAPOL packets to prevent nonce reuse which happens while reinstallation of Pairwise Trasient Key(PTK) which happens in case if there is an attack. Our patches blocks access to the victim system via rogue AP created by the KRACK and alerts the client about the suspicious activity and blocks the attacker from further attacking.

Radio waves are preferred to acoustic and optical waves for underwater wireless communications for shallow water real-time applications. However, for deep water communication, acoustic waves are preferred to electromagnetic waves as acoustic waves are capable of propagating through compressions and rarefactions. Moreover, acoustic waves require high power for underwater transmissions. Radio waves have a different mechanism of propagation than acoustic waves. Also, radio waves have higher data rate underwater than acoustics. This leads to low power usage by underwater sensors. Therefore, radio frequency electromagnetic waves can be employed to address constrained battery life issue in underwater wireless sensor networks. Attenuation loss in seawater depends on temperature and salinity of the wireless medium and frequency of propagating radio signal. Temperature and salinity both changes with variation in depth. This leads to lower attenuation of radio waves in deep water as compared to shallow water. Our research analytically establishes the fact that radio waves are suitable for deep water communications by using acoustics as a complementary technology. In this paper, an extensive study of path loss analysis is provided for radio waves in case of shallow and deep water sensor networks.

With the current technology revolution, underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) find several applications such as disaster prevention, water quality monitoring, military surveillance and fish farming. Nevertheless, this kind of networks faces a number of challenges induced by the nature of the underwater environment and its influence on the network physical media. Therefore, the ultimate objective of this paper is to lay down the key aspects of the physical layer of the underwater sensor networks (UWSNs). It discusses issues related to the characteristics and challenges of the underwater communication channel, differences between terrestrial wireless sensor networks and UWSNs, and acoustic propagation models in underwater. The paper also surveys some of the underwater acoustic modems. This study is essential to better understand the challenges of designing UWSNs and alleviate their effects.

We propose a novel optimal time slot allocation scheme for clustered underwater acoustic sensor networks that leverages physical (PHY) layer information to minimize the energy consumption due to unnecessary retransmissions thereby improving network lifetime and throughput. To reduce the overhead and the computational complexity, we employ a two-phase approach where: (i) each member node takes a selfish decision on the number of time slots it needs during the next intra-cluster cycle by solving a Markov decision process (MDP), and (ii) the cluster head optimizes the scheduling decision based on the channel quality and an urgency factor. To conserve energy, we use a hybrid medium access scheme, i.e., time division multiple access (TDMA) for the intra-cluster communication phase and carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) for the cluster head-sink communication phase. The proposed MAC protocol is implemented and tested on a real underwater acoustic testbed using SM-75 acoustic modems by Teledyne Benthos. Simulations illustrate an improvement in network lifetime. Additionally, simulations demonstrate that the proposed scheduling scheme with urgency factor achieves a throughput increase of 28% and improves the reliability by up to 25% as compared to the scheduling scheme that neither use MDP nor optimization. Furthermore, testbed experiments show an improvement in throughput by up to 10% along with an improvement in reliability.

The underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) is considered a promising technology for collecting valuable data from underwater areas, particularly for aiding military operations and environmental predictions. UWSNs consist of underwater sensor nodes that have limited energy and use acoustics for communication. Routing in underwater sensor nodes is one of the challenging issues in UWSNs because of the need to forward data packets with minimal energy consumption and a high packet delivery ratio. Selecting the next forwarding nodes is one of the key components of routing in UWSNs and has a direct effect on energy consumption and the packet delivery ratio. Therefore, this problem has gained much attention from the research community with the intent of enhancing the performance of UWSNs. This paper qualitatively reviews routing protocols for UWSNs, focusing on the next‐hop selection method and its strengths and weaknesses. A taxonomy is presented for reviewing routing protocols under different categories of the classification. A summary of the qualitative investigation is presented highlighting aims, the next‐hop selection method, metrics, and priority considerations. A comprehensive investigation is carried out focusing on energy, link quality, void awareness, reliability, and shortest path characteristics. Finally, we discuss potential future research directions in UWSNs for forwarding node selection.

Recently, Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
(UWSNs) has witnessed significant attention from both
academia and industries in research and development, due
to the growing number of applications for wide range of
purposes including commercial, scientific, environmental
and military. Some of the major applications include pollution
monitoring, tactical surveillance, tsunami warnings
and offshore exploration. Efficient communication among
sensors in UWSNs is a challenging task due to the harsh
environments and peculiar characteristics of UWSNs.
Therefore, design of routing protocol for efficient communication
among sensors and sink is one of the fundamental
research themes in UWSNs. In this context, this
paper proposes a location-free Reliable and Energy efficient
Pressure-Based Routing (RE-PBR) protocol for
UWSNs. RE-PBR considers three parameters including
link quality, depth and residual energy for balancing energy
consumption and reliable data delivery. Specifically, link
quality is estimated using triangle metric method. A light
weight information acquisition algorithm is developed for
efficient knowledge discovery of the network. Multi-metric
data forwarding algorithm is designed based on route cost
calculation which utilizes residual energy and link quality.
Simulations are carried out in NS-2 with Aqua-Sim package
to evaluate the performance of RE-PBR. The performance
of the proposed protocol is compared with the stat of-
the-art techniques: DBR and EEDBR. The comprehensive
performance evaluation attests the benefit of RE-PBR
as compared to the state-of-the-art techniques in terms of
network lifetime, energy consumption, end-to-end delay
and packet delivery ratio.

more than half surface of earth is covered with water. Underwater environments are essential for human beings as a result of their effect on primary global production, of carbon dioxide assimilation and atmosphere of earth. Because of decrease of terrestrial assets, researchers are giving careful consideration to the investigation of underwater assets. UWSNs have picked up a lot of consideration from researchers as a result of their capability to screen underwater environment.  In underwater environment routing protocols aimed for Terrestrial Wireless Sensor Networks (TWSNs) cannot work precisely, because of the distinctions in numerous angles, for example, utilization of acoustic connections rather than radio connections. UWSNS topology is more vigorous than TWSNs on the grounds that nodes move uninhibitedly with water streams and change their position as often as possible

Electromagnetic (EM) waves cannot propagate more than few meters in sea water due to the high absorption rate. Acoustic waves are more suitable for underwater communication, but they travel very slowly compared to EM waves. The typical speed of acoustic waves in water is 1500 m/s, whereas speed of EM waves in air is approximately 3 × 10 8 m/s. Therefore, the terrestrial wireless sensor network (WSN) protocols assume that the propagation delay is negligible. Hence, reactive protocols are deemed acceptable for WSNs. Other important issues related to underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) are determining the position of the underwater nodes and keeping a time synchronization among the nodes. Underwater nodes can neither determine their position nor synchronize using Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) because of the short penetration of EM waves in sea water. The limited mobility of UWSN nodes and variation in the propagation speed of acoustic waves make time synchronization a challenging task for underwater acoustic networks (UASNs). For all these reasons, WSN protocols cannot be readily used in UASNs. In this work, a protocol named SPRINT is designed to achieve high data throughput and low energy operation in the nodes. There is a tradeoff between the throughput and the energy consumption in the wireless networks. Longer links mean higher energy consumption. On the other hand, the number of relay nodes or hops between the source node and the final destination node is a key factor which affects the throughput. Each hop increases the delay in the packet forwarding and, as a result, decreases the throughput. Hence, energy consumption requires the nearest nodes to be chosen as forwarding nodes, whereas the throughput requires the farthest node to be selected to minimize the number of hops. SPRINT is a cross-layer, self-organized, proactive protocol which does not require positioning equipment to determine the location of the node. The routing path from the node to the gateway is formed based on the distance. The data sending node prefers to choose the neighbor node which is closest to it. The distance is measured by the signal strength between the two nodes.

Recently, the underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs)
have been proposed for exploration of the underwater resources and
to obtain information about the aquatic environment. The noise in
UWSNs challenges the successful transmission of packets from a sender
to a receiver. There are many protocols in literature that address noise
reduction/avoidance during underwater communication. However, they
require localization information of each sensor nodes that itself is a challenging issue. In this paper, the minimum channel noise is considered
and the depth and noise aware routing (DNAR) protocol is proposed
to send the packets reliably from a sender node to a surface sink. In
the DNAR protocol, more energy is assigned to the sensor nodes that
have depth level ≤150 m. Therefore, the sensor nodes that deployed are
nearby to the sink node have more capability of transmission and will
not die quickly. Also, the proposed protocol selects the forwarder candidate that have lowest depth and minimum channel noise at the receiver.
As compared to some existing schemes, the proposed scheme requires no
geographical information of the nodes for data routing. The DNAR protocol is validated by Matlab simulation and compared it with the DBR
scheme. The simulation results show that the DNAR has better results
in-terms of packet delivery ratio (PDR), total energy consumption, and
the network lifetime.

We make use of the existence of cell-disjoint paths in the 3D grid topology to design a new highly reliable adaptive geographic routing protocol called Grid-based Adaptive Routing Protocol (GARP) for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks. In GARP, the underwater environment is viewed as a virtual 3D grid of cells. A packet is forwarded following a pre-constructed routing path from a node in a grid cell to a node in a neighbouring grid cell repeatedly until the destination sink node is reached. When a selected routing path becomes unavailable, GARP adapts to the condition by switching to an alternative path making use of the existing cell-disjoint paths. Since the protocol uses pre-constructed routing paths, it avoids path establishment and path maintenance overheads. Analytical performance evaluation results for GARP are obtained showing its high reliability. In tested cases, the delivery ratio has approached 100% when the network density has reached a minimum number of sensor nodes per grid cell.

—Many routing protocols are proposed regarding energy efficiency in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs). We propose sparsity-aware energy efficient clustering (SEEC) protocol for UWSNs. SEEC specially search sparse regions of the network. We divide the network region into subregions of equal size and search sparse and dense regions of the network field with the help of sparsity search algorithm (SSA) and density search algorithm (DSA). SEEC improves network lifetime through sink mobility in sparse regions and clustering in dense regions of the network. SEEC also achieves network stability with optimal number of clusters formation in dense regions of the network where each dense region logically represents a static cluster. The division of the network region into subregions control routing hole problem in the UWSNs. SEEC minimizes network energy consumption with balanced scheme operations. Effectiveness of our proposed protocol is verified by simulation results.

The pollution monitoring system describes the processes and activities that need to implement through monitor the quality of specific environment. In this thesis those activities and processes are presented by assuming two important areas, the design of underwater wireless sensor network and a proposal water quality index in Iraq using fuzzy inference system.
In the first area (design of underwater wireless sensor network),thesis focus on the performance assessment of five underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) Media Access Control (MAC) layer protocols namely; (Broadcast MAC, Aloha, R-MAC, FAMA, and UWAN_MAC). These protocols are used for the water environment in terms of energy consumption and received throughput. Three of them are nominated based on some previous assessment. They were compared in terms of total drop packets and average end to end delay. Subsequently, an investigation of the facts about what is the robust and energy efficient routing protocol in underwater wireless sensor networks is presented. This is done by comparing three important routing protocols, namely; Vector-Based Forwarding Protocol (VBF), hop-by-hop vector-based forwarding (HHVBF) and Vector-Based Void Avoidance (VBVA). The performance evaluation of these protocols is achieved using metrics energy consumption, average end-to-end delay and Packet delivery ratio. Results of these evaluations and comparisons prove that UW-MAC protocol is the most suited one with geographic routing protocols especially VBF. Assessment is carried out by using Aqua-Sim simulators for underwater sensor networks and NS2 based simulator installed in Linux environment.
II
A robust and flexible index was made to be used as baseline for all pollutants that need to be monitored. This has been done with fuzzy inference system to present a work aimed to propose water quality index in Iraq. Fuzzy logic is used for developing the traditional environmental indices to eliminate the routine in assessment of water quality. As well as to overcome the largest problems uncertainty and subjectivity in traditional way; we called "FWQI". To evaluate the performance of the index suggested with the real conditions, the case study was conducted on Tigris River, Iraq. The data of water quality from different sampling positions were taken. It was found that the achieved results from Fuzzy Water Quality Index (FWQI) are less than the results obtained from the regular method in final score of pollution by approximately 41.64% for a specified period.

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN), similar
to the terrestrial sensor networks, have different
challenges such as limited bandwidth, low battery p
ower, defective underwater channels, and high varia
ble
propagation delay. A crucial problem in UWSN is fin
ding an efficient route between a source and a
destination. Consequently, great efforts have been
made for designing efficient protocols while consid
ering
the unique characteristics of underwater communicat
ion. Several routing protocols are proposed for thi
s
issue and can be classified into geographic and non
-geographic routing protocols. In this paper we foc
us
on the geographic routing protocols. We introduce a
review and comparison of different algorithms
proposed recently in the literature. We also presen
ted a novel taxonomy of these routing in which the
protocols are classified into three categories (gre
edy, restricted directional flooding and hierarchic
al)
according to their forwarding strategies.

Several Medium Access Control (MAC) and routing protocols have been developed in the last years for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). One of the main difficulties to compare and validate the performance of different proposals is the lack of a common standard to model the acoustic propagation in the underwater environment. In this paper we analyze the evolution of underwater acoustic prediction models from a simple approach to more detailed and accurate models. Then, different high layer network protocols are tested with different acoustic propagation models in order to determine the influence of environmental parameters on the obtained results. After several experiments, we can conclude that higher-level protocols are sensitive to both: (a) physical layer parameters related to the network scenario and (b) the acoustic propagation model. Conditions like ocean surface activity, scenario location, bathymetry or floor sediment composition, may change the signal propagation behavior. So, when designing network architectures for UWSNs, the role of the physical layer should be seriously taken into account in order to assert that the obtained simulation results will be close to the ones obtained in real network scenarios.

The probe of innovative technologies is a furious issue of the day for the improvement of underwater wireless sensor network devices. The undersea is a remarkable and mystical region which is still unexplored and inaccessible on earth. Interest has been increasing in monitoring the medium of underwater for oceanographic data collection, surveillance application, offshore exploration, disaster prevention, commercial , scientific investigation, attack avoidance, and other military purposes. In underwater milieus, the sensor networks face a dangerous situation due to intrinsic water nature. However, significant challenges in this concern are high power consumption of acoustic modem, high propagation latency in data transmission, and dynamic topology of nodes due to wave movements. Routing protocols working in UWSN has low stability period due to increased data flooding which causes nodes to expire quickly due to unnecessary data forwarding and high energy consumption. The quick energy consumption of nodes originates large coverage holes in the core network. To keep sensor nodes functional in an underwater network, dedicated protocols are needed for routing that maintain the path connectivity. The path connectivity consumes more energy, high route updated cost with a high end to end delay for the retransmission of packets. So, in this paper, we are providing a comprehensive survey of different routing protocols employed in UWSN. The UWSN routing protocols are studied and evaluated related to the network environment and quality measures such as the end to end delay, dynamic network topology, energy consumption and packet delivery ratio. The merits and demerits of each routing protocol are also highlighted.

This paper addresses poor cluster formation and frequent Cluster Head (CH) failure issues of underwater sensor networks by proposing an energy-efficient hierarchical topology-aware clustering routing (EEHTAC) protocol. In this paper, fault-tolerant backup clustering (FTBC) algorithms and multi-parameter cluster formation (MPCF) model were developed for the EEHTAC operation. The MPCF model tackles the issue of poor cluster formation performance by integrating multiple parameters to achieve effective clustering process. The FTBC algorithms tackle the issue of frequent CH failures to avoid interruption in data transmission. Performance of the MPCF model was evaluated using normal, high-fault, and high routing overhead network scenarios. Performance metrics employed for this analysis are temporal topology variation ratio (TTVR), CH load distribution (CLD), and cluster stability (STB). Obtained results show that operating with a CH retention period of 90s achieves better CH duty cycling per round and improves the MPCF process with values of 25.69%, 55.56%, and 60% for TTVR, CLD, and STB respectively. Performance of the FTBC-based EEHTAC was evaluated relative to Energy-balanced Unequal Layering Clustering (EULC) protocol. Performance indicators adopted for this evaluation are routing overhead (Ω), end to end delay (Δ), CH failures recovered (CFR), CH failures detected (CFD), received packets (θ), and energy consumption (Σ). With reference to the best obtained values, EEHTAC demonstrated performance improvement of 58.40%, 29.94%, 81.33%, 28.02%, 86.65%, and 54.35% over EULC variants in terms of Ω, Δ, CFR, CFD, θ, and Σ respectively. Obtained results displayed that the MPCF model is efficient for cluster formation performance and the FTBC-based EEHTAC protocol can perform effectively well against an existing CBR protocol.

Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) provide new opportunities to observe and predict the behavior of aquatic environments. In some applications like target tracking or disaster prevention, sensed data is meaningless without location information. In this paper, we propose a novel 3D centralized, localization scheme for mobile underwater wireless sensor network, named Reverse Localization Scheme or RLS in short. RLS is an event-driven localization method triggered by detector sensors for launching localization process. RLS is suitable for surveillance applications that require very fast reactions to events and could report the location of the occurrence. In this method, mobile sensor nodes report the event toward the surface anchors as soon as they detect it. They do not require waiting to receive location information from anchors. Simulation results confirm that the proposed scheme improves the energy efficiency and reduces significantly localization response time with a proper level of accuracy in terms of mobility model of water currents. Major contributions of this method lie on reducing the numbers of message exchange for localization, saving the energy and decreasing the average localization response time.

There are various different methods and apparatuses in relation to detecting harmful toxins within our ocean and other aquatic environments. The need is for the best approach given the time sensitivity of the matter. Through looking at my past designs, and other buoy deployments, there may be a way to improve detection in regards to signal strength capability. This requires a thorough understanding and overview of software defined networking capabilities centered under underwater wireless communication and telemetry, as well as methods of improvement in regards to real time detection. There also needs to be an emphasis on the real time detection of data and its importance. The likelihood of a noticeable improvement is centered on the idea of a P2P wireless and/or mesh networking implementation to improve signal latency and strength. There shall also be an emphasis on experimental methods as well and protocols of improvement or further implementation. Due to the doppler effect on waves, and the difficulty for traditional signal processing and strength to happen underwater, research within the field of underwater acoustics and wireless communication is crucial.

In this paper, a deployment mechanism is designed to distribute heterogeneous nodes to optimally cover the pipeline where the mechanism helps locate each node on the wall of the oil pipeline where the number of nodes can be increased depending on this mechanism. The six-layer network hierarchy includes basic sensor nodes (BSN), aggregation relay node (ARN) that added to the network hierarchy, data relay nodes (DRN), data dissemination node (DDN), base station (sinks), and network control center (NCC). This network relies on the improved smart redirect or jump algorithm (SRJ) by sending packets depend on the active relay nodes in both directions that are within the transmission range of the ARNs instead of relying on the number of hops adopted by the SRJ algorithm to reduce the network delay, the energy consumed in relay nodes, and the number of times the DRNs increased transmission range. The OMNeT++ and MATLAB programs were used to implement the simulation scenario. The results showed superiority in terms of the average overhead communication, energy consumption, and end to the end delay with network delay in some cases rely on the number of active relay nodes.

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2018 - 2019 NETWORK SIMULATOR - NS2 IEEE FINAL YEAR Projects
MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc Networks)
A Delay-Sensitive Multicast Protocol for Network Capacity Enhancement in Multirate MANETs
A Novel Light-weight Subjective Trust Inference Framework in MANETs
M-LionWhale: multi-objective optimization model for secure routing in mobile ad-hoc network
Toward Constructive Relay-Based Cooperative Routing in MANETs

WSN – Wireless Sensor Networks (Routing)
Compressive Data Gathering Based on Even Clustering for Wireless Sensor Networks
Data Drainage: A Novel Load Balancing Strategy for Wireless Sensor Networks
Energy Efficiency Maximization in Mobile Wireless Energy Harvesting Sensor Networks
Fuzzy Logic-Based Routing Algorithm for Lifetime Enhancement in Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Networks
Traffic and Energy Aware Routing for Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Networks


WSN – Wireless Sensor Networks (Security)
A Comprehensive Trust-Aware Routing Protocol With Multi-Attributes for WSNs
Secure Knowledge and Cluster-Based Intrusion Detection Mechanism for Smart Wireless Sensor Networks
VANET – Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (Routing)
ANTSC: An Intelligent Naïve Bayesian Probabilistic Estimation Practice for Traffic Flow to Form Stable Clustering in VANET
Real-Time Path Planning in Urban Area via VANET-Assisted Traffic Information Sharing
Traffic-Aware VANET Routing for City Environments—A Protocol Based on Ant Colony Optimization

VANET – Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (Security)
An Enhanced Distributed Trust Computing Protocol for VANETs
Conditional Privacy-Preserving Authentication Using Registration List in Vehicular
Distributed Privacy-Preserving Collaborative Intrusion Detection Systems For VANETs
Efficient Privacy-preserving Scheme for Real-time Location Data in Vehicular Ad-hoc Network
Reliable Cooperative Authentication for Vehicular Networks
Secure Healthcare Data Dissemination Using Vehicle Relay Networks

Underwater Sensor Networks
An Energy-Aware and Void-Avoidable Routing Protocol for Underwater Sensor Networks
Co-EEORS: Cooperative Energy Efficient Optimal Relay Selection Protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
Path Finding for Maximum Value of Information in Multi-modal Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks
TDA-MAC: TDMA Without Clock Synchronization in Underwater Acoustic Networks

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS & OTHERS
Dynamic Connectivity Establishment and Cooperative Scheduling for QoS-Aware Wireless Body Area Networks
Traffic-Aware Efficient Mapping of Wireless Body Area Networks to Health Cloud Service Providers in Critical Emergency Situations

Centralized Trust Based Secure Routing in Wireless Networks
Network Topology Effects on the Detectability of Crossfire Attacks
PROVEST: Provenance-based Trust Model for Delay Tolerant Networks

When comparing terrestrial wireless sensor networks with underwater wireless sensor networks in terms of challenges, we find that the fundamental difference is the communication medium. Studies in this area indicated that acoustic communication is the typical physical layer technology for underwater networks compared with electromagnetic waves and optical waves. Energy constraint, long delay and limitation in bandwidth are greater challenges in underwater monitoring and other applications. In this paper, we will assess the performance of five UWSN MAC layer protocols of the aquatic environment in terms of energy consumption and received throughput and then nominate three of them based on previous assessment and compare them in terms of total drop packets and average end to end delay. Assessment is carried out by using Aqua-Sim simulators for underwater sensor networks and NS2 based simulator installed in Linux environment

Routing in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is a challenging problem because of the intrinsic characteristics of this class of wireless networks (long propagation delay, mobility of nodes, etc.) and because of the performance indices that must be taken into account, such as the network throughput, the packet delivery ratio and the energy cost. In particular, routing algorithms must grant a low energy cost in order to max-imise the lifetime of the network's nodes. In this study we focus on a popular routing protocol for UWSNs, namely the Depth-Based Routing (DBR). Specifically, we study the impact of the transmission range of the nodes on the network performance indices, with particular attention to its energy efficiency. The study is based on an extensive set of simulations performed in AquaSim-NG using a library that has been developed with the aim of providing an accurate estimation of the nodes' energy consumption and is integrated with the tools previously developed for the study of UWSNs. The main outcome of our work is showing the relation between transmission range providing the optimal DBR energy efficiency and the density of the nodes in a UWSN.

Most applications of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) demand reliable data delivery over a longer period in an efficient and timely manner. However, the harsh and unpredictable underwater environment makes routing more challenging as compared to terrestrial WSNs. Most of the existing schemes deploy mobile sensors or a mobile sink (MS) to maximize data gathering. However, the relatively high deployment cost prevents their usage in most applications. Thus, this paper presents an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV)-aided efficient data-gathering (AEDG) routing protocol for reliable data delivery in UWSNs. To prolong the network lifetime, AEDG employs an AUV for data collection from gateways and uses a shortest path tree (SPT) algorithm while associating sensor nodes with the gateways. The AEDG protocol also limits the number of associated nodes with the gateway nodes to minimize the network energy consumption and

Owing to the harsh and unpredictable behavior of the sea channel, network protocols that combat the undesirable and challenging properties of the channel are of critical significance. Protocols addressing such challenges exist in literature. However, these protocols consume an excessive amount of energy due to redundant packets transmission or have computational complexity by being dependent on the geographical positions of nodes. To address these challenges, this article designs two protocols for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs). The first protocol, depth and noise-aware routing (DNAR), incorporates the extent of link noise in combination with the depth of a node to decide the next information forwarding candidate. However, it sends data over a single link and is, therefore, vulnerable to the harshness of the channel. Therefore, routing in a cooperative fashion is added to it that makes another scheme called cooperative DNAR (Co-DNAR), which uses source-relay-destination...

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN), similar to the terrestrial sensor networks, have different challenges such as limited bandwidth, low battery power, defective underwater channels, and high variable propagation delay. A crucial problem in UWSN is finding an efficient route between a source and a destination. Consequently, great efforts have been made for designing efficient protocols while considering the unique characteristics of underwater communication. Several routing protocols are proposed for this issue and can be classified into geographic and non-geographic routing protocols. In this paper we focus on the geographic routing protocols. We introduce a review and comparison of different algorithms proposed recently in the literature. We also presented a novel taxonomy of these routing in which the protocols are classified into three categories (greedy, restricted directional flooding and hierarchical) according to their forwarding strategies.

In this paper, an investigation for the facts about what is the robust and energy efficient
routing protocol in underwater wireless sensor networks by comparing between three routing
protocol are Vector-Based Forwarding Protocol (VBF), hop-by-hop vector-based forwarding (HHVBF)
and Vector-Based Void Avoidance (VBVA). The typical physical layer technology for underwater
networks is acoustic communication compared with electromagnetic waves and optical waves.
Energy constraint, long delay and limitation in bandwidth are greater challenges in underwater
acoustic sensor networks for monitoring and other applications.in this paper present the
performance evaluation of these protocols in term of energy consumption ,average end-to-end
delay and Packet delivery ratio. Comparison is carried out by using Aqua-Sim simulators for
underwater sensor networks and NS2 based simulator installed in Linux environment.

— Sensor networks in underwater environments, that is, forming underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs), has been attracted significant attention recently from both academia and industry. The characteristics of underwater sensor networks are fundamentally different from that of terrestrial networks. In this paper, we overviewed the main routing issues and challenges for efficient communications in underwater acoustic sensor networks.

Most applications of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) demand reliable data delivery over a longer period in an efficient and timely manner. However, the harsh and unpredictable underwater environment makes routing more challenging as compared to terrestrial WSNs. Most of the existing schemes deploy mobile sensors or a mobile sink (MS) to maximize data gathering. However, the relatively high deployment cost prevents their usage in most applications. Thus, this paper presents an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV)-aided efficient data-gathering (AEDG) routing protocol for reliable data delivery in UWSNs. To prolong the network lifetime, AEDG employs an AUV for data collection from gateways and uses a shortest path tree (SPT) algorithm while associating sensor nodes with the gateways. The AEDG protocol also limits the number of associated nodes with the gateway nodes to minimize the network energy consumption and Sensors 2015, 15 29150 to prevent the gateways from overloading. Moreover, gateways are rotated with the passage of time to balance the energy consumption of the network. To prevent data loss, AEDG allows dynamic data collection at the AUV depending on the limited number of member nodes that are associated with each gateway. We also develop a sub-optimal elliptical trajectory of AUV by using a connected dominating set (CDS) to further facilitate network throughput maximization. The performance of the AEDG is validated via simulations, which demonstrate the effectiveness of AEDG in comparison to two existing UWSN routing protocols in terms of the selected performance metrics.

In this paper, performance of hydraulic pressure based routing protocol (HydroCast) is examined, and (Improved HydroCast) a technique for reliable HydroCast is proposed.
Pressure level of sensor nodes is used to route data packet in greedy multi hop fashion to sinks deployed on the surface of water. The goal of this paper is to define reliable routing technique, that is applicable for both low and high density underwater wireless sensor networks. In this paper, varying number of mobile sensor nodes are randomly deployed along with some fixed nodes at different strategic locations in the network. These few fixed nodes play important role in minimizing average number of transmissions for data packet delivery, and maximizing packet delivery ratio in sparse network. Simulation results validate that the proposed technique.

Abstract Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) is an emerging technology for the monitoring of aquatic assets and frequently applied in several domains like underwater information gathering, ocean sampling network, anonymous vehicles, disaster prevention and submarine detection. Recently, UWSNs have been getting significant attention of researchers from both academia and industry. As a result, several studies have been carried out to perform certain improvements in UWSNs techniques, tools, protocols and architectures. In this regard, there is a dire need to investigate and summarize the modern UWSNs trends altogether within a single study. To achieve this, a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) is performed in this article to comprehensively analyze the latest developments in UWSNs. Particularly, 34 research studies published during 2012-2020 have been selected and examined in the area of UWSNs. This leads to the identification of 21 modern routing protocols and 11 tools. Furthermore, 5 different architecture types and 3 communication media technologies are presented in the context of UWSNs. Finally, a comparative analysis of routing protocols is done on the basis of important evaluation metrics. It has been concluded that there exist adequate approaches, protocols and tools for the monitoring of UWSNs. However, the design verification capabilities of existing approaches are insufficient to meet the growing demands of UWSNs. In this context, the findings of this article provide solid platform to enhance the current UWSNs tools and techniques for large and complex networks.

Very low frequency electromagnetic communication system is used in a small scale underwater wireless sensor network for coastal monitoring purposes, as recent research has demonstrated distinct advantages of radio waves compared to acoustic and optical waves in shallow water conditions. This paper describes the detailed TDMA and packet design process for the prototype sensor system. The lightweight protocol is time division based in order to fit the unique characteristics and specifications of the network. Evaluations are based on initial beach trial as well as modeling and simulations.