Tribal studies

Daily life in a Mayan kingdom was a complex, multi-faceted -- and often times difficult -- way of life.  Their geographic area encompassed a portion of Mesoamerica, from Southeastern Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula down into Northern Central America.  Mayan territory included Pacific coastline, mountainous highlands, and forested lowlands.  Scholars today believe the total area covered approximately 125,000 square miles.  Each area had its own unique challenges, from the fertile Pacific side, with warm, tropical conditions, to the highlands, with cooler, more temperate-like zones.  Volcanoes, rivers, mountains and forests fill Mayan Mesoamerica, each with its own sub-zone and micro climate.  Unlike North American tribal societies, where large animals were followed seasonally, the food sources of the Maya -- fish, small animals, deer, and birds -- remained mostly stationary, permitting earlier members of Mayan society to establish deep roots in particular locales.

This study discusses the relations between the peoples known as Sarmatians, Alans, Vandals, and other groups in the context of fluid identities and political affinities of Late Antiquity and early medieval Europe. It is argued that the Vandals underwent a substantial transformation from being dominantely farmers to centre on horse breeding and mounted warfare. In this process, Sarmatian and Alanian influence on the Vandals was crucial. One could speak of a 'Sarma-tisation' of Vandal warfare, economy, dressing, and conduct, but also of a Vandal confederation of identities to which other 'barbarian' peoples could be connected .

The current research was conducted in Dara Adam Khel, Pakistan to explore the structure and procedure of the informal social justice system- commonly known as Jirga. The war on terror made it imperious for tribal Pakhtuns to bring back their chaotic lives on the right track to achieve economic prosperity and peace in the region. Pakhtuns residing in Pakistan have been suffering from this tempestuous situation since decades. Terrorism has brought the social structure to standstill. Due to the war on terror, the Jirga system has experienced a serious setback. The Jirga system has served the Pakhtun society as a complete code of conduct in maintaining peace and harmony. The data was collected through Focus Group Discussions, Key Informant Interviews and In-Depth Interviews. Majority of the respondents were aged between 45 to 70 years and they were selected through purposive sampling technique.

Residential schools for indigenous students are rarely conceptualised as castles of hope, but because of the difficulty of providing quality education in rural areas, they remain an option, or a necessity, for many indigenous students. Although most contemporary residential schools differ from those that purposefully sought to annihilate indigenous cultures and languages, their existence remains problematic because students grow up in institutional environments that typically favour integration into mainstream culture over maintenance of indigenous cultures. This article is based on ethnographic research conducted in 2014-15 in a large residential school for indigenous students in Odisha, India. Erving Goffman’s (1961) total institution, provides a useful frame to examine data collected on students’ experience because it focuses on institutions that separate groups of people from their communities for an expressed purpose. This case illustrates how a total institution 1) shapes stud...

The prime aim is to investigate whether the influence of social media have changed the cultural patterns of tribal society in West Bengal. Four districts of West Bengal, with 115 householders of 500 samples were selected for the present study. Self-made standardized questionnaire tool of 40 items were constructed by the investigator to study the impact of social media in changing the cultural patterns of tribes on the selected districts of West Bengal through survey method. There is significant relationship between social media and changing lifestyle of tribes. The impact of Social media has influenced the tribal people and social media have led to occupational displacement of tribes of West Bengal.

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La question tribale est réapparue en Algérie suite aux révoltes survenues en Kabylie en avril 2001. Cet ouvrage constitue une contribution aux débats : qu'en est-il de la tribu dans l'Algérie actuelle ? Qu'est-ce qu'une tribu dans le cadre des sociétés contemporaines caractérisées à la fois par l'Etat-nation en tant que système politique normatif et par les recompositions sociales, territoriales et politiques liées aux transformations des Etats contemporains ?

An ethnobotanical study in "Garo" ethnic community living in the Madhupur, Tangail district has been carried out. Information gathered through repeated visits to various sites, participant observations, structured, semi-structured and unstructured questionnaires, focus group discussion and personal contacts with various people of "Garo" community. During the survey, 86 Plant taxa belonged to 84 genera under 46 families were mentioned by them having economic importance, of which only the ethnonomedicinal values of them were highlighted. All specimens are kept in the Herbarium of Rajshahi University. Of the plants 36 species were used only as medicine, 25 plants only as other purposes and while 25 had both medicinal and other economic importance. Different plant parts of different spp. are used as medicine for treating various diseases.

Child marriage reduction using provisions under POCSO Marriage is a universal, social institution and the multiplicity and variety of its forms serves to suggest its indispensability. The evolution of the concept of marriage is a difficult thing to trace for the birth of man is birth of a marriage. Many people defined marriage differently mainly on the basis of their conceptual classification and empirical equipment. "'Marriage may be defined as a relation of one or more men to one or more women, which is recognized by custom or law, and involves certain rights and duties both in case of the parties entering the union and in the case of the children born of it'. Westermark. "Marriage involves the social sanction generally in the form of civil or religious ceremony authorizing two persons of opposite sex to engage in sexual and other consequent and correlated social economic relations with one another "Majumdar and Madan. Since marriage is an important social institution, different social groups have devised their own rules and regulations in regard to mate-selection. The terms exogamy and endogamy refers to these rules. Approved marriages are of two types, first form is Tribal Endogamy, to preserve the group's homogeneity, purity, prestige and fostering the sense of unity within the group (Jyoti 1983), and second form of approved marriages are free-will marriages. These marriages get the social sanction and family approval only in such cases where there is a common caste. Even otherwise free will marriages are approved and given legal sanction provided a boy or a girl attains particular age or maturity from the point of

I try here to give an overall view of the situation of the tribes of Western India, particularly in regard to religion. I stress the continuity between tribal religion and popular Hinduism in the region, but also point to various specific traits of the tribal religions. The present pressure from Hindu orgaizations is stressed, but in a erspective of continuous contact over the centuries.

Health is one of the Social Indicators of Human Development; Environment is the Basic determinant of Health in general. India has the world's second largest concentration of tribal population next to Africa, 2011 census the scheduled tribe's population in our country is 8.7 percent and in Telangana State 9.34%. United Adilabad district's Tribal Population is 18.09 percent. The present study has been conducted in two villages i.e., Ekori and Masala of Bela Mandal in Adilabad district. The Researcher has selected 50 sample respondents, 25 from each village. Objectives of the paper are to study the SocioEconomic and demographic status of the tribals, to explain the health condition of primitive tribes in selected study area. 34% sample respondents are illiterate and they are innocent. Nuclear family accounts for 76%. 50 respondents are cultivators followed by 36% laborers and remaining 14% are daily wage laborers. Overall observation is 48% are in good health in the study area and 52% respondents are having different types of diseases in the study area. Tribal having lack of knowledge about non-tribal society as a result they are presently exposing to exploitation by non-tribal.

The tribal communities of Jangalmahal in West Bengal are the oldest settlers of Chotonagpur plateau. They still bear the identity of tribes as they practice the rules followed by their ancestors following an independent route of lifestyle, but frequently facing the forces of market economy. They had been the icon of ecological balance and applied their own wisdom or logic in harnessing and consuming natural resources, their every step of life support was thus 'Eco Logic'. These tribal groups had a deep relation with the forest which controlled their material, social as well as spiritual needs. But gradual thinning out of forest cover has put forward a number of problems before these simple and less-consuming groups. This article is engaged to discern the interactions of tribal, specifically Santal with sub-humid deciduous forest tracts of Jangalmahal area of West Bengal. This paper is an attempt to re-evaluate the extent of symbiotic relation of the tribal community with forest of the area selected on the basis of available information.

Points out how religion is power; power will be used by others--even the non-religious; when things go awry, then, religion is then blamed, often by the same ones who have exploited its power. This calls for critical and wary analysis of the rhetorical use of religion as a pawn, followed by its being blamed as a scapegoat.  Published in The Destructive Power of Religion; Violence in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, edited by J. Harold Ellens (4 volumes, Westport/London: Praeger Publishers, 2004), Vol. 2, 265-83.

This paper focuses on the politico Historical context of Mapithel dam. The study tries to understand the phenomenon looking at the multiple concepts emerging out from the people's perspectives. Large dams are considered as development ventures in our country India, known for producing hydroelectricity for power, controlling flood, generate water for the irrigation system and navigation purpose. It is observed that Policymakers, development planners, and practitioner frequently overestimate the advantages and think little of the expense and its consequences. The construction of the large dam has caused in many cases extensive loss to the culture, identity, land, forest, river and human life. Introduction: The Post-colonial period in India has marked the coming of neo-liberalism, modernization and globalization. Free markets are created and the flow of global capital is seen everywhere. There is a flow of cheap labour, global capital which has shape the concept of neo-liberalism and modernisation. Industrialization has led to the formation of Capitalist class which has influenced the policy makers and planners of every nation and states. This neo-liberalism and modernization concept has exploited the traditional way of sustainability use of natural resources. The land, river, and forest have become a commodity and profit earning for the elite classes. The exploitation of natural resources not only led to displacement of people but also harm the living species and environment of the region where dam is constructed. The Northeast region of India which was once known as a ‗frontier' with thick forest and stiff mountains have become a gateway to South East Asia countries in this contemporary world. It can be argued that neoliberalism, and globalisation has influence development projects such as construction of industries, dams, coal mining, oil extraction projects in the Northeast region. The implementation of Look east policy in the region will drastically change the region for better or worse. This development projects in the region has led to the displacement, loss of lives, land, river and forest in the region.

The policy of assimilating, 'mainstreaming' or 'de-tribalizing' indigenous communities by placing their children in boarding schools has been increasingly discredited and abandoned, most publicly throughout North America and Australia since the 1980s and 1990s. In India, this history and its dangers are little known, with relatively little awareness of how they are being replicated among many of India's tribal communities. Education-induced assimilationism has evolved more slowly in India, but has now reached a larger scale than in any other country, with many similar manifestations to the 'stolen generations' model that has created outrage in Australia, Canada, the USA and elsewhere. This article traces the evolution and dangers of this history and the present situation in India.

Townsend Middleton's The Demands of Recognition is an invitation to think through the everyday dilemmas of ethnic minorities as well as the state anthropologists who certify them as 'scheduled tribes' in contemporary India. Through an extended case study of Nepali-speaking groups that are collectively known as 'Gorkhas', Middleton shows how late liberal governmentality and what he calls the 'ethno-contemporary' make and remake each other. As the postcolonial state has devised affirmative action policies to redress the historical disadvantages of socially marginalized groups, a new kind of 'ethnopolitics' has emerged to claim the loaves and fishes offered by the state. In turn, this new ethnopolitics has compelled the state to rethink its classificatory schemas and mechanisms in order to decide which groups ought to be considered as 'tribes', and hence, merit affirmative action. In most cases, the primary aim of ethnopolitics in contemporary India is to enter official lists or 'schedules' that record castes and tribes as well as other groups deemed to be 'backward' enough to warrant affirmative action. The situation with the Gorkhas was no different after their demand for a separate state of Gorkhaland went unmet a generation ago. By undertaking a fine-grained ethnographic exploration of the Gorkhas' ethnopolitics and the travails of their interlocutors within the postcolonial ethnographic state, Middleton challenges us to interrogate our received notions of ethnicity and about the place of anthropology in our world.

The word Gandharva has been derived from the Sanskrit root gandh, meaning smell or fragrance [1]. Gandharvas are low-ranking male natural deities, appeared in Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist myths. Characteristically, the Gandharvas find their symbolic association with fine and creative arts, specifically music. Socially, Gandharvas find their denotative connection with sexuality and procreation so much so that a marriage consummated without Vedic rituals or a consensual union between two lovers is known as “Gandharva marriage.”

Gender issue has gained importance and recognition. It has become an issue almost everywhere including the tribal society in North East India. This article is an attempt to study gender status and role of women in the Paite society, a tribal community in Manipur, Mizoram and Assam. It is also a comparative study of the position of Paite women in their

This book offers a comprehensive view of the relationship between the Indian tribes and the mainstream. It covers key topics such as health, education, development, livelihood, disability and culture, and presents new insights by focusing on the perspective of the 21st-century tribal youth of the country. The volume explores inclusive education for scheduled tribes children; mainstreaming tribal children; mental health and superstition; ageing and morbidity and psychological distress among elderly tribal population; empowerment via handicraft; livelihoods via non-timber forest produce; the Forest Right Act; the tribal sub-plan approach; tribal cuisine and issues of food; identity; myths and feminism. The book combines fresh research viewpoints with ideas on implementable solutions that would facilitate a more inclusive development for one of the most marginalised communities while highlighting critical issues and concerns. An important intervention, this book will be useful to scholars and researchers of tribal studies, sociology, rural sociology, development studies, social anthropology, political sociology, politics, ethnic studies, sociolinguistics, education and public policy and administration.

According to the United Nations, violence against women consist of "any act of gender based violence that result in or likely to result in, or likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering of women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. It is a manifestation of unequal power relation, which has led to man's domination over and discrimination against women. Violence against women is an important force that helps to keep the structure of patriarchy intact. Violence against women can be broadly divided into two categories: Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the community, including Rape, Sexual Abuse, Sexual Harassment, and Intimidation at Work, in Educational Institutions and elsewhere, Trafficking in women and Forced Prostitution; and Physical, sexual, and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry related violence and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation. In this paper researcher tries to analyse the nature and causes of physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the community. Introduction According to the United Nations, violence against women consist of "any act of gender based violence that result in or likely to result in, or likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering of women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. Violence against women shall be understood to encompass but not to limited to: physical, sexual, and psychological violence occurring in the family and in the community including battering, sexual abuse of female children, dowry related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation, and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence, violence related to exploitation, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women, forced prostitution, and violence perpetrated or condoned by the State." Violence against women is viewed as one of the most crucial societal mechanism by which women are forced into a subordinate position. It is a manifestation of unequal power relation, which has led to man's domination over and discrimination against women. Violence against women is an important force that helps to keep the structure of patriarchy intact. It Makes gender discrimination a live and terrifying experience for women, and ensures their subjugation. It is used the term gender based violence to describe acts that cause physical, sexual or psychological harm to women. Such acts are based in the unequal relation that exist between men and women in society. Violence against women, including threats or fear of violence is a permanent constrain on the mobility of women and limits their access to resources and basic activities. Such violence are impediments to the achievements of the objectives of equality, development and peace. It violates and

Sabeans: folk settled in central Yemen belonging to the great tribe and kingdom of Saba’ (8th century BCE – 3rd century CE). Famous for the likely fictitious character of the Queen of Saba’, this kingdom established itself as one of the great power of pre-Islamic Arabia.

The vibrant life of the tribal people, their traditional customs, festivals, and dances are some of the significant components of their rich cultural diversity. Culture is a dynamic and ever-changing entity. The changing environment makes internal adaptation necessary for culture to change. As a result, lot of changes have also been observed in the cultural practices of the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. The impact of urbanisation and modernization has brought a major economic and socio-cultural transformation among the people. Their society is changing not only in the socioeconomic and political realms but also in traditional beliefs and practices. Materials and Methods:The study is based on both secondary and primary data. The secondary data related to various attributes of Nyishi tribe have been obtained from Census of India, 2011. Besides, existing literature available in various journals, books, etc. has been consulted with a view to develop a broad theoretical framework of the present research in right perspective. Necessary primary data have been collected from 60 households, 30 each from rural and urban areas, through sample survey with the help of a well-designed survey schedule. The data obtained from both secondary and primary sources have been processed and analysed using some simple but meaningful statistical techniques for objective and logical interpretation. Results/Findings:The study reveals that large population of Nyishi tribe practicing Christianity as compare to other religions. The household survey further reveals that incidence of inter-community, inter-religion, inter-tribe marriage, and incidence of widow remarriage is higher in the urban areas compared to the rural ones. Conclusion: The study assumes significance in the contemporary juncture as the Nyishi people are prone to unfamiliar practices which were once unknown in their society. Notably, these practices are more frequent in urban centres than in rural areas. Rapid urbanization and invasion of modernization in tribal life and culture are the obvious factors responsible forchanging cultural practices in Nyishi society.

The paper investigates the linguistic issues faced by the Adivasi children in the state of Jharkhand. Despite being formed on the basis of a distinct ‘identity’ (here Adivasi), Jharkhand has failed its children in providing them the primary education in their mother-tongue. The issue of the ‘language’ has become pivotal for any debate over the education of the adivasi children in Jharkhand. It’s a culturally and linguistically diverse state where more than 23 languages are spoken. In a survey carried out by UNICEF in 2013, 96 per cent of respondents said to have other than Hindi or English as their mother-tongue. More than half of the adivasi kids said to have dropped out of schooling system (as early as in standard 1st or 2nd) due to the linguistic issues faced by them in the schools.
Based on the ethnographic data collected from the field, the paper argues that the problem of the ‘language’ in Jharkhand has to be located in the broader political-economy of the region. The socio-history of the locality, its geography, and the life-world of adivasis has to be taken into consideration before arriving at any conclusion about the ‘language’ problem there. The technique of participatory observation, both inside and outside classrooms, were used to map the two separate life-worlds of adivasi children. It is through the negotiation between these two life-worlds, and their complex interplay of the power and ideology, the adivasi children make sense of their education. The paper also engages with the adivasi literature (in Ho and Santhali) to demonstrate the uniqueness of the adivasi life-world and the subtleties of their languages.
Keywords: symbolic violence, language, adivasi life, life-word, ideology

Mithila"s contribution to Sanskrit learning through the ages has been an established fact. To keep the identity of being a pioneer centre of Sanskrit learning Mithila had to consolidate herself against Buddhism and Jainism up to the early medieval period. With the decline of Nalanda and Vikramshila Universities Mithila shared double responsibilities: to maintain her central position of Hindu learning and also to cope with the ideological agenda emerged as a result of the penetration of Muslim power. In lieu of Sanskrit and Pali, the Persian became the court language in Northern India. Hindus too had to take interest in Persian learning since the last quarter of the fifteenth century. The Persian remained the court language up to 1839. Thus medieval Mithila was in the period of transition. Indo-Islamic culture affected the cultural contours of Mithila. Persian and Arabic learning were no longer remained unknown to this region. Frontier sub-regions of Mithila such as Purnea, Bhagalpur, Monghyr became prominent centers of Muslim learning and even in heartland of Mithila Muslim learning was not ignored. In fact Sanskrit learning was still a force but Persian was necessity. This was also accepted by the colonial power. We find three streams co-existed in colonial Mithila-those well-versed in Hindi, local languages (Tirhutia) and Sanskrit; those skilled in Urdu, Persian and Arabic; finally the handful of Indians who had learnt English. In fact Persian, Arabic and Urdu learning is also a part of Mithila"s intellectual culture. Thus the colonial Mithila represents a very complex and very wide range of educational issues related to Sanskrit, Tirhutia, Persian, and Arabic and even to some extent Urdu learning. The present paper tries to evaluate the important aspects of Muslim learning prevalent during the colonial Mithila in context of continuity and change.

Environmental Changes and their impacts are the unwanted of physical and as well as socioeconomic activities. Environmental process change the acidity of soils, natural soils composition, the nutritional status of soils content, properties of surface water, , and food chains system in the World. Due to humans need man convert forest to industrial land, settlement, marketing place, multiplex, pasture land and grassland to cropland or parking, but the consequential habitat change and biodiversity loss is still undesired. Environmental change the social structure of civil societies and due to environment number changing occur likes social and cultural changes as well as physical and biological. It is caused for air pollution, water pollution, social pollution as well as various problem arises every daily for environment change. The paper is based on field survey and tries to find out changing pattern of rural life with reference to sonajhuri village in Birbhum district. It describes various related pressure as consequential from monetary behavior. These activities are mainly performed for a purpose, to satisfy various consumptions. The environmental changes are normally tied to the extraction and change of materials and energy.

Human security forms an important part of people’s well-being, and is therefore an important precondition for development. The UNDP's 1994 Human Development Report's definition of human security identifies seven areas viz. economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community and political security those threaten human security. Being an inter-disciplinary concept, it has simultaneously people-centered, multi-sectoral, comprehensive, context-specific, prevention-oriented characteristics. The present study adopts the Department for International Development (DFID) model of livelihood analysis that identifies five capital assets viz. natural, social, financial, physical, and human for sustainable livelihood at the micro level. Indigenous Knowledge (IK) is a key element of the social capital of the eco-literate people and constitutes their main asset in their efforts to gain control of their own lives. The study highlights the livelihood framework of a village of Pakur district of Jharkhand in order to understand the role of the existing practices and assets in securing the way of life of this primitive tribal group. The survival strategy of the community touches the full spectrum of life including economic, ecological, social, health and tribal identity regardless of various extraneous forces.

"...a successful attempt at discussing the history of Jews in India, and in initiating a dialogue for introducing Indo-Judaic studies in Southasia. A pioneering work, introducing Indian Jewry to the world of academics, Aafreedi lays the first stone for further research in the field of Jewish History in Southasia."

Forensic Linguistics analysis became an independent discipline in the last few decades. Forensic Linguistics is the study of Linguistic techniques to investigate Crimes (Criminal/ Civil) especially Authorship disputes, Documentation, Text, Media & Social media disputes Rapes, Murders, Drug dealing, Telephoned Bomb threads, Random threads, Missing, Kidnapping, Counterterrorism, Intelligence and Surveillance. Forensic Specialists who examine spoken or written materials in relation to Crimes (Criminal/Civil) and Legal matters are known as 'Forensic Linguists'. Forensic Linguistics is really helping the Police to detect the real motives and intentions of crimes through the detailed analysis of sounds or texts of suspects by applying above said Linguistics theories. This article probably discusses how Forensic Linguistics tools leads to solving Crime Investigation and implementation of the same in Policing.

الثأر نمط من أنماط ممارسة العنف الأولى الذى يحدث بين البشر من منطلق الحفاظ على توازن المكانة والقوة بين البشر والذى يظل مرهونا بتحقيق السلام والعدل الاجتماعى بين جماعات البشر. انه الشكل الأولى للعنف الذى يستوجب الرد ويعيد الأمور الى نصابها . وهو العنف الذى يقترن بالحياة القبلية بأعرافها السابقة على فكرة  وجود الدولة وفقا لنظرية العقد الإجتماعى. هذه الظاهرة مرتبطة بمفهوم الشرف فى مجتمعات البادية بالمنطقة العربية . ويحاول هذا المقال أن يحلل طبيعة الثأر فى المجتمعات العربية  والأسباب الاجتماعية والاقتصادية والسياسية لاستمرار ممارسات الثأر وإعادة انتاجه فى عالمنا المعاصر، وأسباب فشل الدولة الحديثة التى تأسست فى العالم العربى باعلائها لسيادة القانون فى أن تقضى على حوادث الثأر. والمقال يستند الى قراءة نقدية لدراسة أحمد أبوزيد عن الثأر.

Kotwalias are a Primitive tribe residing in hilly and forest region of Western India. They are a semi nomadic and landless poor community dependent on forest resources for their survival. This paper is a first comprehensive socio-economic survey of this community.

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An analysis of urban development in post-independence India shows that the country has inherited an uneven regional distribution of city and town formations. No other region illustrates this better than the North East. This complex topic is examined with reference to the “tribal metropolis” of Shillong in Meghalaya, which is experiencing a rapidly changing urban landscape. How urban space is governed in Shillong is analysed. In doing so, contestations by various stakeholders regarding urban expansion and development along with its implications for the tribal population living in the vicinity of the city are examined.

The tribals are, by and large, children of nature, their life style being conditioned by their ecosystem. At present there are approximately 250 million tribal people, roughly five percent of the global population. The paper is aimed to focus on the demographical features of tribals in the study area, to study the socioeconomic conditions of tribes and to examine their diseases burden in the study area in Warangal district. It is assumed that the demographical aspects influence the living condition of tribes. Health conditions are depending on level of income and economic conditions leads to healthy life. The paper focuses on demographical issues like type of family, age and sex composition, marital status, educational status and so on. The paper also focuses housing pattern, ownership, electrification, water facilities. It examines labour force participation, occupation, land holding and land values, assets values and their income levels. Tribals are facing problem of different diseases and economic burden on them so on.

Come esseri umani, «esistiamo in quanto operiamo nel linguaggio e conserviamo il nostro dominio di adattamento nel dominio di significati che questo crea; (…) siamo osservatori ed esistiamo in un dominio semantico creato dal nostro operare linguistico» (Maturana-Varela, 1984). Accogliendo questa tesi si afferma che l'apertura al/del mondo accade anzitutto e fondamentalmente nel linguaggio: «il linguaggio è la casa dell 'essere» (Heidegger, 1947). Ci accorgiamo allora che le varie trasformazioni della parola dallo stadio orale a quello scritto, fino alla stampa e all'elettronica, hanno comportato, e continuano a comportare, mutamenti nei modi del pensiero e nell'organizzazione mentale. Oggi, con la sempre più decisiva virtualizzazione dell'esperienza e della comunicazione umana, con una parola sempre più rivestita da un'aura elettronica, possiamo e dobbiamo chiederci se e in che modo le piattaforme di comunicazione basate su Internet costituiscono un progressivo abbandono dei principi fondanti della cultura alfabetica. La parola elettronica, logos cibernetico, pone cioè il linguaggio in una condizione di metamorfosi tale da allontanarlo dalle portanti categorie della cultura alfabetica. L'idea che qui propongo è che, come le "parole" del mythos avevano uno straordinario potere sui corpi e la comunicazione umana, allo stesso modo la parola "elettronica" ha un potere di inclusione tale da far rivivere la forza propulsiva della parola mitica, segnando un cambio di passo e una parziale ridefinizione della tradizionale cultura alfabetica. Occorrerebbe, però, capire cosa stiamo abbandonando e dove sono, se ci sono, i segnali deboli che confermano o confutano tale migrazione verso una cultura differente. Le riflessioni di McLuhan sono la base da cui partire. McLuhan, tra i primi, ha individuato e descritto la natura ordinatrice, in sé dispotica dell'alfabeto. Secondo il suo pensiero, gli uomini "primitivi", gli uomini tribali dell'oralità, sperimentavano un equilibrio armonioso dei sensi, percependo il mondo nella stessa misura tramite l'udito, l'odorato, il tatto, la vista e il gusto. Fu l'invenzione dell'alfabeto fonetico che scagliò l'uomo preistorico fuori dal suo equilibrio sensoriale, consegnandolo alla predominanza della vista. La scrittura prima e la stampa poi accelerarono questo processo che, traducendo in segni astratti tutta la sensorialità, traduce tutti i sensi in "senso". Così, nella famosa intervista a Playboy (1969), McLuhan argomenta: «L'alfabetizzazione ha spinto l'uomo fuori dalla tribù, gli ha dato un occhio in cambio di un orecchio e ha sostituito la sua profonda interazione comunitaria con valori visivi lineari e con una coscienza frammentata. In quanto intensificazione e amplificazione della funzione visiva, l'alfabeto fonetico diminuisce il ruolo dell'udito, del tatto, del gusto e dell'odorato, permeando la cultura discontinua dell'uomo tribale e trasformando la sua armonia organica e la sua complessa sinestesia nella modalità visuale uniforme e continua che consideriamo ancora oggi la norma dell'esistenza «razionale . L'uomo integrale divenne l'uomo frammentato; «

‘Duncan McDuie-Ra has not only written a thoroughly readable and well-researched ethnography on Northeast migrants in Delhi, in more general terms he has also produced an important contribution to what could be labelled ‘big city ethnographies’. Cities such as Delhi, Mumbai or Bangalore not only feature prominently in a particular narrative on economic growth that infuses how the cities present themselves and how their inhabitants reflect on them, but they are coloured by the kind of diversity that is the result of large-scale internal migration. Understanding what all these people—not just north-easterners—are doing in the city in terms of work and lifestyle, and how they experience being in the city on the one hand and how they are part of the urban landscape in physical and mental terms on the other, is something that will hopefully be the focus of many other works of ethnography in the future. I have no doubt these will benefit greatly from McDuie-Ra’s insightful and carefully researched work.’ Dr. Michiel Baas. South Asia  37 (2), pp. 359-361.

The essay probes into an uncharted area of the advent of modern education in Singhbhum to fulfil a long gap into how literate tradition first entered into this tribal region. The author is fortunate in accessing some vital archival papers that helped embodying the institutional basis of early colonial experiment through the Chybassa School about which we have practically no knowledge. In different sections, the author makes an attempt to elaborate the very motive behind the foundation of the School, rather the purpose of disseminating western education; the Administrative and Academic structures that gave the School its form and content; the interesting story of tribal response to modern education; the doubts and dilemma that clogged this experiment of introducing modern education and finally to resolve the mystery of its supposed demise.

Tribal studies in India have been experiencing ideological and socio-political upheavals vis-à-vis taken serious turns. Comparative studies are done reflecting the complex aspects like tribe-caste interaction, habitation, ecological setting and other aspects of their life. Theories and methods developed continuously reflect that tribal studies do not remain confine within the stipulated boundaries and approaches of social anthropologists and sociologists only, rather scholars from other disciplines too show tremendous interests to re-look into the issues and problems of the tribes. The 'Isolationist approach' of Verrier Elwin, the 'Assimilationist approach' of G.S Ghurye and the 'Integrationist approach' propounded by Jawaharlal Nehru by now is seriously reviewed and rewritten. This paper highlights these major Approaches are how far relevant in Contemporary period. Introduction Tribal studies attract scholars across disciplines. European anthropologists and sociologists lay foundation of tribal studies. Australian aborigines, African and Indian tribes become subject of intensive study for these scholars. Colonial admistrators cum anthropologists too put immense interest to study tribes. European model of tribal study becomes dominant which is subsequently corroborated by contextualized theories and methods. Indian tribes are unique in terms of distinctive socio-historical features. Tribal studies in India or studies relating to the multi-dimensionalities of the tribes in India started during the late British period. The domination of British anthropology upon Indian anthropology and sociology continued. At least concepts, methods and approaches developed by them were followed by most of the scholars in India. Subsequently the studies of American anthropologists and other scholars from Africa and other regions also influenced/motivated the Indian scholars. However till the early 1970 Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's methods remained to be the most popular methods for the Indian scholars. Therefore, Tribal studies in India become a matter of immense debate and discussion among scholars across disciplines throughout the world. Indian sociologists, colonial administrators and policy makers could not put similar view on problems and prospects of Indian tribes. There are three major approaches 'Isolation approach', 'Assimilation approach' and 'Integration approach' emerge on Indian tribes.

By locating the Tana Bhagats in the shifting terrains of forests and fields in Chhotanagpur, and by examining the hierarchies within the Oraon community, this paper suggests an alternate reading of adivasi protest in colonial India. It also revisits the relationship between the Congress and the adivasis. Finally, by counterpoising the colonial archive with Tana pamphlets and petitions , it analyses different narratives of Tana pasts in order to make sense of how histories and memories of adivasi protest are reworked in postcolonial times.