The Evil Eye

Belief in the Evil Eye in Van and Related Narratives Derya ŞEVLİ  Öz Halk arasında ve günlük yaşamda yadsınamaz bir yeri bulunan nazar, kötü bakışın ortaya çıkarmış olduğu birtakım olumsuzluklardır. Göz ve bakış anlamları olan nazar, insana, hayvana, bitkiye veya cansız varlıklara değebilmektedir. Bu durum din, ırk, coğrafya fark etmeksizin hemen hemen bütün toplumlarda kabul görmekte ve yaşanabilmektedir. Bu kültürel olgu, genellikle kötü niyetli, renkli gözlü kimselerin muhataplarına karşı duydukları kıskançlık, haset, çekememezlik gibi olumsuz duygular sonucunda ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu durumdan korunmak ve etkisinden kurtulmak amacıyla da birtakım dinî ve sihri sağaltım pratiklerine başvurulmaktadır. Bunları gerçekleştirecek olan kimseler ise geçmiş dönemlerde kam, şaman, baksı olarak bilinen ancak günümüzde ocaklı, halk hekimi gibi isimlerle anılan özel kimselerdir. Bu çalışmada, Van halkının nazara olan inancına, nazar değmesinden korunma yollarına ve nazar değmesi sonucunda oluşan olumsuz durumlardan kurtulmak için yapılan uygulamalara yer verilmiştir. Ayrıca halk arasında, bu inanç etrafında oluşup anlatılan çeşitli anlatılara da yer verilerek değerlendirmeler yapılmıştır. Çalışmada, verilerin toplanması amacıyla 2020 ve 2022 yılları arasında saha çalışması yöntemi uygulanmıştır. Görüşme ve mülakat teknikleriyle kaynak kişilerden konuyla ilgili bilgiler alınmıştır. Bu veriler ve yazılı kaynakların da desteğiyle Van ilindeki nazar inancı ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. Van halkı, başına gelen birçok olumsuz durumu nazarla ilişkilendirmektedir. Korunmak için yapılan pratik ve uygulamalar incelendiğinde ise birtakım dinsel ve büyüsel uygulamaların olduğu, bazen bunların iç içe geçtiği ve bazılarının halkın hafızasında birer anlatıya dönüştüğü tespit edilmiştir.

This research article summarizes the findings of a larger research study which attempted to gather data on Turkish activists' perceptions on the scope, strength and limitations of digital activism. Qualitative data were collected via a web-based survey from 302 activists to find out what potential and limitations Turkish activists attribute to utilization of SNS for activism purposes. The results illustrated that a total of 263 activists in the sample appreciated SNS for providing a fertile ground for activism and a total of 131 activists drew attention to the potential of SNS for managerial purposes, for awareness raising and for creating positive publicity for the cause and the activists. The role of SNS for the maintenance of polyvocality was expressed by a total of 115 activists. The political environment, surveillance, control and manipulation of the internet, disbelief in jurisdiction, the fear atmosphere and the social environment were the limitations selfreported by the activists in the sample.

This article presents the initial stages and the planned further developments of a research on Hungarian curative charms against fright illness. Based on a rich and interesting database of healing and curative folk beliefs, rituals and texts, the research aims at exploring the charms and the charming rituals from the perspective of medical anthropology. The analysis is focused on the phenomenon of fright-illness (ijedtség) and its verbal magical treatment, on the basis of emic perceptions. While this research will develop and progress, the current article gives a general introduction to the Hungarian terminology on fright-illness in comparison to similar culture-bound syndromes in Central Europe, and also introduces the most prominent of the charms, in Hungarian with English translation.

This paper proposes a novel source for – or at least influence on – the iconography of the Moon trump in the Rider-Waite Tarot deck, which preserves the design from the Tarot de Marseille. In fact, the Moon template appears to date back to the earliest days of the Tarot. The proposed source or prototype is a Greco-Roman talismanic design against the Evil Eye known as the "all-suffering eye", which frequently occupies the reverse face of Byzantine copper/bronze "Holy Rider" amulets. The paper identifies compositional elements that correspond in the Evil Eye and Moon card designs, presents reasons why the moon and the Evil Eye might have been thought of as cognates, and considers other likely inputs into the Moon card's visual program.

Evil eye belief is found in many parts of the world and it plays a major social role in a large number of cultural contexts. The history of evil eye bead usage dated back to ancient times, but upon time it's meaning have been re-constructed by culture. This paper focused on an amulet based commodity "evil eye bead" used against evil eye and for ornament in Turkey. In order to analyze the myth of evil eye bead, two-sectioned survey was conducted. First section determined evil eye belief rate, participant profile and objects against evil eye. In the second section, the semantic dimensions of evil eye bead was analyzed in the myth level encompassing its perception and function as a cultural opponent act. This paper interrogated the role of culture, geography, and history on the evil eye bead myth.

When Orestes is about to kill her, Clytemnestra reveals to him her naked breast, a potent symbol of maternal devotion. In the Iliad, Hecuba revealed her breast to Hector, conjuring him to stay safe inside the walls. Instead of trying to protect her son, Clytemnestra, of course, wants to lure him into the palace, where she can have him killed.
The many allusions to the evil eye throughout the trilogy find their visual counterpart in this scene. After he has slain his mother, the Furies, with their bulging eyes dripping with blood toment him with the memory of the matricide.

Evil eye belief is found in many parts of the world and it plays a major social role in a large number of cultural contexts. The history of evil eye bead usage dated back to ancient times, but upon time it's meaning have been reconstructed by culture. This paper focused on an amulet based commodity "evil eye bead" used against evil eye and for ornament in Turkey. In order to analyze the myth of evil eye bead, two-sectioned survey was conducted. First section determined evil eye belief rate, participant profile and objects against evil eye. In the second section, the semantic dimensions of evil eye bead was analyzed in the myth level encompassing its perception and function as a cultural opponent act. This paper interrogated the role of culture, geography, and history on the evil eye bead myth.

The paper proposes that the Egyptian-style imagery on a 5-6th century CE magical amulet discovered at Nea Paphos in Cyprus (Inv. no. PAP/FR 44/2011) draws upon an apotropaic design against the Evil Eye known as the “All-Suffering Eye,” which dates back to the time of the early Roman Empire and is common on Byzantine "Holy Rider" medallions. [Note that the journal cannot support non-Latin characters, so Beta code is used for Greek transliteration, most notably IAEW for ιαεω.]

If you study the old occult sciences of the Islamic world, and in particular their uptake and development by magicians and mystics when they first reached the European continent, you will at some point come across what is known as 'The Science of Letters', (or 'ilm al-ḥurūf' in Arabic).

Jerry Toner defines "popular culture" as "the culture of the non-elite" that was "the  unofficial and subordinate culture of Roman society." (Toner 1)  Magic, superstition, and religion were interchangeable in Roman antiquity.  Domestic religious practices have often been discussed in terms of “popular religion,” religious aspects of "popular culture," but Romans of all classes participated in the domestic cult.  Boundaries, both physical (the threshold/ limen, door/ ianua, or even the intersection of streets and property lines) and metaphysical, (the pomerium of the city of Rome) presented weakened points in the lines of defense that could be strengthened with "magic" or more "popular" religious practices.  Thus, shrines were erected at crossroads (compita), wind chimes in the form of a phallus (tintinnabula) were hung to avert the evil eye, and other forms of supernatural assistance, including “bird deposits” buried under villas in the Pyrenees region (Bowes 216), were used as magical protection. Romans, too, had a number of deities whom they could appeal to whose powers comprised boundaries including the Lares Compitales (gods of the crossroads) and Janus.

This paper focuses on mosaics from two buildings in Thysdrus (modern El Jem in Tunisia): the January panel (emblema) from The Mosaic of the Months from the House of the Months, (late second-early third century CE) in the Sousse Museum and the Owl Mosaic (late third century CE), a threshold mosaic from the Baths of the Owl in the El Jem Archaeological Museum, to consider the connections between boundaries, "popular religion," and “magic” in a North African town that became wealthy due to its olive oil industry and renowned for the games in its amphitheatre, now a UNESCO World Heritage site.

The influence of the soul on the material world and peculiar topics such as evil eye has always been matters of challenge. Avicenna, through the tenth part of Isharat, tried to prove them possible. He believes that those who consider direct contact, sending parts, and creating quality through a mediator as the only exclusive ways of influencing objects believe in the unlikeliness of them. Avicenna, however, does not accept this limit. According to him, exerting influence on something does not require direct contact with them, or sending parts toward them, or creating qualities in them via a mediator. Isharat Commentators (Khaje Nasir al-din Tousi and Fakhr al-Razi) have not proposed a thorough interpretation of the point. This essay elaborates how Avicenna challenges the point and explains the ways to influence on objects

Islam for English Speakers

A Guide to Establishing the Prayer in Islam is a booklet based on the evidence derived from Quran and Sunnah describing the Prayer (Iqamatul Salat) of Muslims from Adhan to the Remembrances customarily recited after the Prayer.

It includes the proof of the number and timing of the obligatory prayers, and their forms, and prerequisites. The Prerequisites are described in detail, including the purity of location, body, spirit and intention.  The actions are explained from ablution, the call, the supplications before beginning recital of the Unlocking of the prayer, the various positions and what is said in each of them, and the supplications that end the prayer.

One section deals with performing the Prayer  in other than Arabic - an action generally assumed to invalidate the Prayer. It discusses in brief the dissenting viewpoint.

The approach to describing the prayer is loosely based on the approach of Sheikh Mohammed Nasser Uddin Al Albani, may Allah have Mercy on him. However, a useful section at the end provides a model for new Muslims to follow for each prayer. This section progressively models the Dawn Prayer, the Sunset prayer, and the Noon, Afternoon and Evening Prayers, and some of the after Prayer Supplications. All of the words needed are provided in transliterated Arabic, not in Arabic script, and in English with pictures to help the beginner get the movements and actions of the Prayer right. 

Finally, the Bibliography provides an exhaustive list of Source Materials and web links to most of them.

I hope the book let proves useful to you.

Title: The phenomenon of the evil eye and apotropaic motives in Serbian traditional embroidery: looking for relevant approach to the study of ethnomuseological heritage
Abstract:  The article makes a combining analysis of two types of sources which reflect the Serbian traditional culture and history. The first is represented by ethnographic narrative observations of the second part of the 19th – early 20th century and another one by museum artefacts of the same period. This approach demonstrates the existence of a close connection between the ornamental embroidery, as a product of preindustrial era home needlework, with magic belief system which prevailed in that period, in particularly with belief in the evil eye. Placing the museum artifacts in the cultural-anthropological context provides a deeper understanding of the nature of their origin, which in turn contributes to the articulation of their value as an ethnomuseological heritage. ***** В статье предпринято сопоставление двух видов исторических источников: этнографических наблюдений второй половины XIX – начала ХХ в. и музейных памятников этого же периода, отражающих сербскую традиционную культуру и историю. Такой подход демонстрирует существование неразрывной связи между орнаментальной вышивкой, как продукта домашнего рукоделия доиндустриальной эпохи, с бытовавшими в народе мифологическими представлениями. К ним, в частности, относилось убеждение в способности изобразительных символов защитить от сглаза — воображаемой невидимой угрозы, вера в существование которой была широко распространена в народной культуре. Рассмотрение музейных артефактов в культурно-антропологическом контексте позволяет приблизиться к пониманию природы их возникновения, что, в свою очередь, способствует артикуляции их ценности в качестве этномузеологического наследия.

Nazar, proto-Türklerden günümüze, insan hayatını etkileyen önemli bir unsur ola-rak varlığını sürdürmektedir. İslamiyet'ten önce Şaman/Kamlar tarafından uygula-nan nazarı def etme ve kişiyi tedavi etme uygulamaları, İslamiyet'in kabulünden sonra da birtakım değişikliklere uğrayarak Ocaklı olarak anılan, bir ustadan el al-mış kişilerce devam ettirilmiştir. Fatma Ana (Hz. Fatma)'yı pirleri olarak gören ve icralarını " el benim değil Fatma Ana'nın " sözüyle geleneğe bağlayan icracılar, te-daviyi el aldıkları kişilerin verdiği ruhsatla gerçekleştirirler. Toplumun herhangi bir tabakasından olan ve " nazar deveyi kazana, insanı mezara sokar " anlayışıyla tedavi yöntemlerini uygulayan bu ocaklılar, proto-Türklerden günümüze, gelişip şekil de-ğiştirerek İslamî hüviyete bürünen nazar çözüm geleneklerini de devam ettirirler. Tedavilerinde dua, tükürük, su ve kurşun dökme gibi unsurlardan faydalanan bu ocaklılar, geleneğin icrası yoluyla toplumsal bir gerçek olan nazar tedavisini sür-dürmektedirler. Bu çalışmada, Amasya'da yaşayan ve anneannesinden el aldığını belirten Belgin Karakaya'dan mülakat yoluyla derlenmiş olan tedavi uygulaması eski Türk Şamanlarının tedavi yöntemleri çerçevesinde karşılaştırmalı olarak ele alınacaktır.///////////The evil eye exists as an important element affecting human life from the ProtoTurks
to the present. The evil eye treatment was applied by Shaman/kam before the
Islamic society. This treatment was continued after the adoption of the Islamic
community by a number of changes, by people called “Ocaklı “ who had taken a
master's treatment legacy. The performers who saw Fatma Ana (Hazrat Fatma) as
their master and linked their performances to the tradition of “İt’s not my hand, it’s
Fatma Ana’s hand”, perform the treatment with the registration given by the people
they take the cure to. Ocaklı who are from any layer of society and applying the
methods of treatment with the understanding of “The evil eye puts people in the
grave, puts camel in the cauldron” are those of proto-Turks to the present, and continue
the traditions of the evil eye solution, which has evolved and transformed into
an Islamic shapes. In the treatment of prayer, saliva, water and pouring lead to the
use of elements such as the evil eye is continuing to treat. In this study, the evil eye
treatment application was compiled through an interview with Belgin Karakaya,
who lived in Amasya/Turkey and received her grandmother's (her master) hand and
tradition legacy. This treatment will be examined in comparison with the treatment
methods of old Turkish Shamanism.

The color blue is thought to protect against the evil eye in Mediterranean cultures. This article unfolds the yet-unstudied role played by kabbalistic theology, symbolism, and myth in the construction of the color blue as a protective color for Jews. It traces particularly the development of a medieval kabbalistic myth of a dazzling blue garment of the feminine aspect of the godhead, protecting her from contact with evil forces. The article shows how this myth became the foundation for various practices against the evil eye among Jews in the modern period and contextualizes this myth within theories about the evil eye.

1.GİRİŞ Dokumacılık sürekli olarak Türk'lere bağlı bir şekilde onların bulundukları yerleşim yerlerinde gelişmiştir. Halı-kilim denildiğinde üretim aşamaları hiç akla gelmeden sadece mobilyaya uygun seçilmesi gereken bir yaygı, örtü akla gelmektedir. Oysaki halıyı, boyasıyla botanik-kimya, hammaddesiyle-ipliğiyle tekstil, motifi ve rengiyle sanat, teknik özellikleri-avadanlıkları-tezgâhlarıyla mühendislik, ikonoğrafik yönüyle felsefe-edebiyat, hatta geçmişiyle tarih yelpazesinde tasavvur etmek gerekmektedir. Orta Asya gelenekli olarak koyun, keçi, at vs. yetiştirmekle yüzyıllar boyu meşgul olmuş olan Türklerin dokuma sanatında estetikle fonksiyonelliği birleştiren çok özel ve önemli üretimleri hep var olmuştur. İnsanlık için vazgeçilmez olan bu ürünlerin ortaya çıkış noktasında hep fonksiyonel kullanım alanı önemli olmuştur. Ancak fonksiyonel kullanım alanı dikkate alınarak üretilen bu dokuma ürünlerin estetik kaygıyı da göz önüne alarak üretimleri esnasında desenlerle zenginleştirilmesi bu sanatı daha da mühim kılmıştır. Hatta bu desenler bir takım tesadüfü bezeme olarak değil, fonksiyonel kullanım amacına uygun özelliklerde inançlarla, duygu ve düşüncelerle birleştirilerek, mesaj veren sembol yüklü tasarımlar olarak kendilerini göstermişlerdir. Sembol, en kısa ve net şekliyle bir fikir ifade etmek için kullanılan işaret olarak tanımlanabilir. Sembolik şekil ise anlatılmak istenen bir fikrin şekil olarak ifadesidir. Bazı estetik fikirler, düşünceler ön planda olmakla birlikte, her hangi bir nesne yada obje yanış olarak Türk dokumalarında kullanılırken, estetiksel görünüm ve beğeni beklentilerinin yanı sıra fonksiyonel kullanımı da dikkat edilmesi gereken önemli noktalardan biri olmuştur. Duygu ve düşünceleri, yaşam tarzını anlatan, içerisinde bir takım değerlerin gizlendiği motifler, Türk dokuma sanatında bir ince estetik sanat anlayışı ile üretime aktarılmıştır. Bu yanışlar, semboller kültürel gelişimle birlikte şekillenmişlerdir. Kültürel yapının değişime uğradığı dönemlerde özelliklerini, değerlerini kaybetmişlerdir. Fakat alışkanlıklar ve gelenekli üretim anlayışının etkisiyle azda olsa kullanılarak devamlılıklarını sağlamışlardır. Birbiriyle ilgisi olmayan topluluklarda bile bir takım ortak mitolojik ve sembolik öğelerin bulunması konuyu daha da ilginç kılmaktadır. Bilim şimdilik bunu " etkileşim " kavramıyla açıklamaya açıklamaktadır (Ateş.2001,11). İkonografi şahsi beğenilerin dışında, geleneksel kurallara göre şekillere, işaretlere ve sanat unsurlarına anlam yüklemektir. İkonografinin bir amacı da halkın fizik ötesi duygu ve düşüncesini, felsefesini ortaya koymaktır (Karamağralı.1998,34). Sembollerin, mitolojilerin resimlere dönüşmüş şekilleri olarak ilk defa nerede, ne zaman doğduğunu bilemiyoruz. Ancak, uzun tarihi dilimlerinde dünyanın değişik yerlerinde benzer şekilde ortaya çıktıklarını ve insanlığın ortak mesajları olduklarını söyleyebiliriz (Ateş2001,12). Bu semboller tarih içerisinde pek çok el sanatı ürününde de yanış olarak kendini ortaya koymuştur. Dokuma ürünlerin estetiğini yansıtan bu yanışlar, üretildikleri devirlerin adeta sözcüleri, mesaj veren eserleriydi. Günümüz dokumalarında ise bu ikonografik boyuta ticari kaygı, iletişimdeki gelişmeler ve kültürdeki değişiklikler yüzünden rastlanmamaktadır. Rengiyle, motifiyle, tekniğiyle günümüze ulaşan bu harika sanatın, geçmiş ile günümüz arasında bir köprü oluşturduğu, Türk kültürünün geniş coğrafyasında hep var  Selçuk Üniversitesi, Mesleki Eğitim Fakültesi, KONYA.

Desde hace algún tiempo venimos estudiando el tema de los amuletos romanos. Como adelanto de una parte de este trabajo, quisiéramos presentar aquí dos amuletos fálicos que, hasta hace poco, se encontraban depositados en el Museo Provincial de Lugo', donde tuvimos ocasión de verlos. Ambos son de bronce.

6ALl>€CIA publicación del departamento de prehistoria y arqueología facultad de geografía e historia universidad de santiago de compostela 11 INDICE Páginas THE ECOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SUBFOSSIL HUMAN POPULATIONS. A GENERAL MODEL AND STUDY OF CASES FROM CENTRAL EUROPE, por Janusz Piontek 7 UN MODELO ETNOARQUEOLOGICO DE LA TALLA DE LA PIEDRA, por J. M. Vázquez Várela y J. Cano Pan 35 LES MONUMENTS MEGALITHIQUES EN ENCORBELLEMENT DE LA FRAN-CE: ORIGINE, CHRONOLOGIE ET SEQUENCES CULTURELLES, por Antón A. Rodríguez Casal 61 ¿DONDE DIABLOS SE ESCONDEN NUESTROS MUERTOS QUE NO LOS PO-DEMOS VER? REFLEXIONES SOBRE EL EMPLAZAMIENTO DE LOS TU-MULOS DEL NOW, por Xacobe Vaquero Lastres 81 ASENTAMIENTO MEGALITICO Y ASENTAMIENTO CASTREÑO: UNA PRO-PUESTA DE SINTESIS, por Felipe Criado Boado 109 UTILES PULIMENTADOS DE PEQUEÑAS DIMENSIONES, por Ramón Fábregas Valcarce 139 UN IMPORTANTE CONJUNTO DEL BRONCE INICIAL EN GALICIA: EL DEPO-SITO DE LEIRO (RIANXO, A CORUÑA), por Gonzalo Meijide Cameselle 151 EL MARMOL EN LA ANTIGÜEDAD CLASICA. UNA APROXIMACION A SU ESTUDIO, Por José Beltrán Fortes 165 ESTAMPILLAS DE LA COHORS I CERTIBERORUM, HALLADAS EN EL CAM-PAMENTO ROMANO DE CIDADELA, por José Manuel Caamaño Gesto 209 NOTAS SOBRE LA FASCINACION EN LA ANTIGÜEDAD, por Eusebio Rey Seara 229 RELIGION MICENICA Y RELIGION GRIEGA: PROBLEMAS METODOLOGI-COS,

Evil eye belief is found in many parts of the world and it plays a major social role in a large number of cultural contexts. The history of evil eye bead usage dated back to ancient times, but upon time it's meaning have been reconstructed by culture. This paper focused on an amulet based commodity " evil eye bead " used against evil eye and for ornament in Turkey. In order to analyze the myth of evil eye bead, two-sectioned survey was conducted. First section determined evil eye belief rate, participant profile and objects against evil eye. In the second section, the semantic dimensions of evil eye bead was analyzed in the myth level encompassing its perception and function as a cultural opponent act. This paper interrogated the role of culture, geography, and history on the evil eye bead myth.

The supernatural is extraordinary or it is something associated with the forces that cannot be apprehended or cannot be proven by science. Supernaturalism includes existence of ghosts and any other power that is invisible to human eye. The paper explores the perception of magic and evil eye that are prevalent in our society. Further it focuses on how gender, education and socioeconomic status are associated with the keeping the existence of supernatural beliefs alive. This study was conducted qualitatively by collecting a sample of 70 respondents randomly from Rawalpindi and Islamabad. The results showed that, gender, socio economic status and level of education were important factors defining the prevalence of superstitious beliefs. People belonging to lower socio-economic class and less educated respondents were found to be more superstitious.

Глаза и зрение в народной маГии и мифолоГических верованиях в настоящем сообщении анализируются результаты новых научных исследований по вопросам изучения мифологических представлений о глазах, зрении и о силе человеческого взгляда, полученные авторами недавно опубликованного коллективного труда: «сила взгляда: Глаза в мифологии и иконографии».

The essay investigates two disparate and yet philosophically linked Enlightenment cases, the witch trial of Anna Göldi and the reception of the poet Anna Louisa Karsch. It shows that the superstitions of earlier ages, such as the Evil Eye, survived into the "Age of Reason" in forms both literal and figurative, not as a deviation from but as an integral part of the basic tenets of the Enlightenment. (In German)

"Abstract: This article presents the initial stages and the planned further developments of a research on Hungarian curative charms against fright-illness. Based on a rich and interesting database of healing and curative folk beliefs, rituals and texts, the research aims at exploring the charms and the charming rituals from the perspective of medical anthropology. The analysis is focused on the phenomenon of fright-illness (ijedtség) and its verbal magical treatment, on the bases of emic perceptions. While this research will develop and progress, the current article gives a general introduction to the Hungarian terminology on fright-illness in comparison to similar culture bound syndromes in Central Europe, and also introduces the most prominent of the charms, in Hungarian with English translation.

Key Words: fright-illness, popular medicine, culture bound syndromes, curative charms, charming practices, healing ritual, Central Europe, Hungary.
"

In the witch of Edmonton, William Rowley, Thomas Dekker and John Ford transport the reader to a world where words are not merely used as tools for describing settings, anchoring the play and its characters in a specific time and place, or narrating actions. They also bring the reader into a world of witches and devils, where words are more than the sum of their meanings; they also possess the power to affect the physical world and shape the doom or destiny of those who utter them. The sombre consequences of having a "bad tongue" will be tragically faced by the two main protagonists of this play: Frank Thorney and Elizabeth Sawyer. On one side of the scale of justice, the vows, oaths and numerous lies of a young man will slowly and irremediably lead him to his ruin; on the side of the scale, a poor and socially alienated old woman pledges her soul to the devil in order to have revenge on her tormentors, but her imprecations and curses will only accelerate her own fall. While both protagonists suffer the consequences of their actions and are eventually punished by the society that engendered them, their journey is quite distinct. The goal of this essay is thus to attempt to determine, with the help of speech act theory, which of their decisions precipitated their fall and how their own words triggered it.