Subsurface

Hydraulic fracturing ('fracking') has enabled the recovery of previously inaccessible resources and rendered new areas of the underground 'productive'. While a number of studies in the US and UK have examined public attitudes toward fracking and its various impacts, how people conceptualise the deep underground itself has received less attention. We argue that views on resources, risk and the deep underground raise important questions about how people perceive the desirability and viability of subterranean interventions. We conducted day-long deliberation workshops (two in each country), facilitating discussions among diverse groups of people on prospective shale extraction in the US and UK. Themes that emerged in these conversations include seeing the Earth as a foundation; natural limits (a greater burden than the subsurface can withstand versus simply overuse of natural resources); and ideas about the fragility, instability and opacity of the deep underground. We find that concerns in both countries were not limited to specific, localised impacts but also addressed ecosystem links between surface and subsurface environments and broader questions about the use, identification and value of natural resources.

Four interrelated stages of three-dimensional modelling in engineering geology using a Geo·lnformation System (GIS) have been distinguished: modelling of geological geometry, modelling of property distribution, scientific visualization and export of data in a form suitable for further numerical calculations and design of engineering structures. This paper discusses the first two stages in relation to regional engineering geological investigations and site investigations. In both cases the present practice is briefly reviewed followed by the advantages that could be achieved when a 3-D GIS is used. Options for improvements of 3-D GIS modelling by incorporating an expert system in a 3-D GIS are evaluated.

This paper explores the representation of goods and services from the subsurface, as defined by the concept of geosystem services, in contemporary ecosystems literature. A framework is defined consistent with and complementary to the categorization defined under CICES. Following the Campbell Collaboration protocol, a systematic literature review is conducted on the representation of subsurface-related goods and services in ecosystem services research. The review shows that, in the period between 2000 and 2016, for every publication on subsurface services 140 articles on ecosystem services have been published. The results further indicate that valuation and governance studies on geosystem services are scarce. This gap stems from the exclusion of a number of abiotic goods and services from the classification as well as a lack of attention from the current scientific community to this topic. Studies to date have been performed in a limited number of English-speaking countries by researchers with backgrounds in ecology, biology, earth sciences and mining engineering. The underrepresentation of geosystem services in the scientific literature negatively impacts integrated decision making in spatial planning, environmental policy making and long term ecosystem management.

The operator of the Groningen gas field is leading an effort to quantify the seismic hazard and risk of the region due to induced earthquakes, including overseeing one of the most comprehensive liquefaction hazard studies performed globally to date. Due to the unique characteristics of the seismic hazard and the geologic deposits in Groningen, efforts first focused on developing relationships for a Groningenspecific liquefaction triggering model. The liquefaction hazard was then assessed using a Monte Carlo method, wherein a range of credible event scenarios were considered in computing liquefaction damage-potential hazard curves. This effort entailed the use of a regional stochastic seismic source model, ground motion prediction equation, site response model, and geologic model that were developed as part of the broader regional seismic hazard assessment. No to minor surficial liquefaction manifestations are predicted for most sites across the study area for a 2475-year return period. The only sites where moderate surficial liquefaction manifestations are predicted are in the town of Zandeweer, with only some of the sites in the town being predicted to experience this severity of liquefaction for this return period.

Just as the space community is expanding our presence into the solar system and beyond, a group of thought leaders, including visionary policy makers, architects, engineers and allied professionals are peering into the Earth, studying co-relations of various dynamic systems including land, air and sea agents, and finding new ways to report and apply the data from space-based assets, for the immediate betterment of humanity. New cities are emerging, established towns are growing and expanding, and many metropolises are merging to become megalopolises around the globe. And urban infrastructures around the world are coping hard to adjust to new pressures including the huge population migration from rural to urban regions, climate change effects, and vital resources, all in an effort to sustain and enhance the quality of life of the citizen. Providing a safe, productive and nurturing environment for the city dweller is the overarching directive and prime aim of every city and city management. Enhancing and safely delivering a range of cradle-to-grave activities to sustain the quality of life of the citizen including incorporating agile, responsive systems for health and welfare, economic opportunities, leisure and safety are all part of the evolving Smart City paradigm. This paper presents the potential for improving the quality of life of the city dweller by applying mature, adaptable and appropriately viable space technologies. By applying lessons learned so far, and using environmentally friendly space technologies, both employed by or being developed in the space community for outer space activities, space systems and practices can be adopted directly or adapted to enhance city life, while also paying attention to 21st century UN sustainable development goals. Specifically, energy production and distribution, the scaling of environmental control and life support systems to accommodate large populations, atmospheric scrubbing and revitalization, production of potable water and recycling waste water and solids can be deployed at scale in cities. In addition, efficient food production and pollution-free, local and long haul transportation and related autonomous agents and allied robotic technologies coupled with agile 5G+ communication networks that allow Internet of Things(IoT) across a myriad of devices for monitoring and responding to citywide needs like traffic and resource management are all related to spacecraft systems in use or in advanced development stages today. It is concluded that environmentally friendly space activity and allied technologies can have immense positive impact yet to be realized in city evolution, and that the Smart City paradigm being currently rolled out across the world stand to benefit tremendously from integrating outer space technologies into deeper layers of city infrastructure. USC School of Architecture has the most diverse student body among American universities. Aspects of potential, progressive developments possible through the use of advanced space and allied technologies in certain world cities are presented by a diverse group of students from around the globe who sat in the 3-unit Space and City seminar in the Spring of 2019.

Just as the space community is expanding our presence into the solar system and beyond, a group of thought leaders, including visionary policy makers, architects, engineers and allied professionals are peering into the Earth, studying co-relations of various dynamic systems including land, air and sea agents, and finding new ways to report and apply the data from space-based assets, for the immediate betterment of humanity. New cities are emerging, established towns are growing and expanding, and many metropolises are merging to become megalopolises around the globe. And urban infrastructures around the world are coping hard to adjust to new pressures including the huge population migration from rural to urban regions, climate change effects, and vital resources, all in an effort to sustain and enhance the quality of life of the citizen. Providing a safe, productive and nurturing environment for the city dweller is the overarching directive and prime aim of every city and city management. Enhancing and safely delivering a range of cradle-to-grave activities to sustain the quality of life of the citizen including incorporating agile, responsive systems for health and welfare, economic opportunities, leisure and safety are all part of the evolving Smart City paradigm. This paper presents the potential for improving the quality of life of the city dweller by applying mature, adaptable and appropriately viable space technologies. By applying lessons learned so far, and using environmentally friendly space technologies, both employed by or being developed in the space community for outer space activities, space systems and practices can be adopted directly or adapted to enhance city life, while also paying attention to 21st century UN sustainable development goals. Specifically, energy production and distribution, the scaling of environmental control and life support systems to accommodate large populations, atmospheric scrubbing and revitalization, production of potable water and recycling waste water and solids can be deployed at scale in cities. In addition, efficient food production and pollution-free, local and long haul transportation and related autonomous agents and allied robotic technologies coupled with agile 5G+ communication networks that allow Internet of Things(IoT) across a myriad of devices for monitoring and responding to citywide needs like traffic and resource management are all related to spacecraft systems in use or in advanced development stages today. It is concluded that environmentally friendly space activity and allied technologies can have immense positive impact yet to be realized in city evolution, and that the Smart City paradigm being currently rolled out across the world stand to benefit tremendously from integrating outer space technologies into deeper layers of city infrastructure. USC School of Architecture has the most diverse student body among American universities. Aspects of potential, progressive developments possible through the use of advanced space and allied technologies in certain world cities are presented by a diverse group of students from around the globe who sat in the 3-unit Space and City seminar in the Spring of 2019.

In this essay I want to look at research done in relation to various caves and cavities on earth, and its implications for our future research in the wider universe. It is only in the last ± 30 years, that we have began unraveling the deep mysteries of the subsurface, a drastically different world on our own planet, filled with millions of unknown species of life. Speleology, or cave research, has become a crucial part of modern astrobiology and as our future missions into the solar system develop, caves can already teach us a lot about what's to come. Inspiration to write about this topic, came after seeing some work done by the current director of NASA's Astrobiology Institute -Dr. Penny Boston, thus most of my arguments will be based on her work. I would like to look at research done on earth's subsurface as an analogue for possible future findings in the universe addressing the questions of geological subsurface formation, extremophile research and subsurface research technologies (robots , biomarkers, etc.).