South Asian Archaeology

2016 Madison South Asia Conference Abstract - Indian Buddhist ritual texts (ca. 6th-7th centuries CE) detail a systematization of mantra families (kulas) through which female deities gain new importance in Mahāyāna ritual and soteriological contexts. These systems consist of a minimum of three ritual families: the Buddha (headed by the Buddha Śākyamuni or Vairocana), the Lotus (headed by the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara), and the Vajra (headed by the Bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi). They are populated by a range of male and female deities who both effectuate practitioners' mantras and personify the physical and mental attributes of their kula leaders. The Mañjuśriyamūlakalpa, perhaps the earliest of these kula-system texts to survive in Sanskrit, characterizes the kula goddesses as female Bodhisattvas who respond to the mantras of their respective families and simultaneously work to establish beings on the path to Enlightenment. This paper focuses on the structure of a specific maṇḍala (sacred deity diagram) that encompasses all or most of these three kulas. It examines the ritual functions of a little-studied class of mantra goddesses (vidyārājñīs) including their processes of embodiment, personification, and positioning in relation to their kula leaders and male counterparts (vidyārājas). Navigating issues of erosion and absence, my analysis compares cognate forms of this early maṇḍala across mediums. Examples include: a stone relief sculpture in situ at the Pandavleni caves in Nāsik, Maharashtra (with figures missing), the sole remaining complete redaction of the Sanskrit Mañjuśriyamūlakalpa, and the Mahāvairocana Abhisaṃbodhi Tantra (a text that survives only its Chinese and Tibetan translations). Therefore, within this process of text-image comparison, my study emphasizes methodological points of difficulty due to the decay or erasure of my primary source materials (including lost sections of manuscript, manuscripts no longer extant, and the wearing away of sculptural imagery).

This is a slightly revised version of my doctoral thesis, in which I have attempted to assemble all the available evidence on the genesis and early development of the directional guardians in Indian culture (mainly Brahmanical / Hindu). The term "Ancient India" should not hide the fact that this group of minor deities continues to occupy an important place in Indic religious practices.

I am in the beginning stages of establishing the Southeast Asian Numismatics Digital Archive (NOTE: An early proof-of-concept site can be found at seanda.omeka.net. A proposal currently under consideration would adopt the numisdata platform of dedalo.dev, the best example of which is monedaiberica.org). The main objective of SEANDA is to be an ever-evolving authoritative curated database of coinage produced in Southeast Asia from the fifth century CE to the beginning of the modern era. Initially, the project will focus on pre-Islamic coin series from mainland and island Southeast Asia, with Islamic and post-1400 CE material added as organizational resources become available.

SEANDA will include full descriptions of all coin series, types, and varieties produced in the region together with high-quality digital images of the best examples available to researchers. Entries will be based upon the study of institutional holdings, private collections, previous research, dealer catalogues, auction offerings, and archaeological excavation reports among other resources. A full bibliographic apparatus will be supplied, together with links to additional online resources. To assist in their detection, modern forgeries, fakes, and fantasy pieces will be included as well.

Analysis of representative coin specimens and associated artifacts will assist in understanding design choices and symbolism, weight standards and denominations, mint practice, metallurgical content, as well as their function within Southeast Asian prestige, tribute, and trading networks. The inclusion of hoards and individual coin finds will be used to determine the numismatic geography for each series, type, and variety. Seals, sealings, seal impressions, renderings of coin motifs found in various media, copper-plate and stone inscriptions, as well as other related  historical documents, will be included in the database as well.

The objectives of SEANDA are three-fold. First, to provide a standard for describing and identifying Southeast Asia's numismatic heritage by archaeologists, researchers, museum professionals and collectors. Second, to bring together in a single location all reliable information regarding coin finds in the region. And third, to present that information in a readily accessible format. For more information, see USING THIS SITE.

SEANDA is dedicated to honoring the numismatic contributions of Jan Wisseman Christie (1947-2021), Pamela Gutman (1944-2015), Vasilijs Mihailovs (1978-2015), B.N. Mukherjee (1932-2013), M. Harunur Rashid (1925-2010) and Nicholas Rhodes (1946-2011).

If you are interested in contributing to this effort, please contact me:
Robert S. Wicks, Ph.D.
Professor Emeritus
Miami University Art Museum, Director (2000-2021)
Oxford, OH 45056
[email protected]

Das Thema dieser Sektion »Verformen, Umformen und Übermalen« spielt oft im Kontakt zwischen verschiedenen religiösen Traditionen eine Rolle, beispielsweise, wenn Heiligtümer einer bestehenden Religion umgebaut werden zu Sakralräumen eines neuen Glaubens. Aber auch im Kleinen -und manchmal aus ganz pragmatischen Gründen -findet eine Umformung von Artefakten der einen Religion zu Artefakten der anderen Religion statt. In der Ausstellung ist beispielsweise ein Kreuz zu sehen, das aus einem jüdischen Grabstein gearbeitet wurde (siehe Abb. S. 167). In diesem vertiefenden Beitrag wird jedoch ein Beispiel aus einer anderen Kontaktsituation erörtert: Jener zwischen buddhistischen und brahmanischen (einer hinduistischen) Traditionen. Im Hinduismus, genauer gesagt in der hinduistischen Richtung des Sivaismus, spielt die Verehrung des Siva Linga, eines symbolhaften Phallus, in dem sich der hinduistische Gott Siva verkörpert, eine wichtige Rolle. Die Ausstellung zeigt neben einem historischen Linga siehe Abb. S. 213) auch eine zeitgenössische Adaption dieses Motivs mit der Arbeit von Berlinde de Bruyckere (siehe Abb. S. 211). Die Veränderung oder Umarbeitung religiöser Objekte steht meist in Verbindung mit einem Wandel von Ritualen oder Glaubensvorstellungen. Dabei wird eine Weiterverwendung von solchen Objekten ermöglicht, die über einen langen Zeitraum in Benutzung waren und für die Gläubigen daher möglicherweise von großem Wert sind. Seltener geht mit der Umformung religiöser Bildwerke auch eine Umwidmung des religiösen Kontextes oder ein Religionswechsel einher. Ein solches Objekt aus dem indischen Altertum, das ursprünglich wohl in buddhistischem Kontext hergestellt wurde und zu einem unbekannten Zeitpunkt in ein brahmanisches (also im weiteren Sinne hinduistisches) Motiv umgearbeitet wurde, soll hier exemplarisch vorgestellt werden. Das Berliner Museum für Indische Kunst zeigte von Herbst 2003 bis Frühjahr 2004 eine Sonderausstellung mit dem Titel Anmut und Askese. Frühe Skulpturen aus Indien. Unter den Exponaten befand sich ein Relieffragment aus dem Government Museum in Mathura, das als »Verehrung des Sivalinga durch Skythen« angesprochen wird. 1 Eine intensive Betrachtung des Exponats führte damals jedoch zu der Erkenntnis, das Relief hinsichtlich seines religiösen Kontextes neu beurteilt werden muss. 2

This volume cross-examines the stability of heritage as a concept. It interrogates the past which materialises through multi-layered narratives on monuments and other objects that sustain cultural diversity. It seeks to understand how interpretations of " monuments " as " texts " are affected at the local level of experience, even as institutions such as UNESCO work to globalise and fi x constructs of stable and universal heritage. Shifting away from a largely Eurocentric concept associated with architecture and monumental archaeology, this book reassesses how local and regional heritage needs to be balanced with the global and transnational. It argues that material objects and monuments are not static embodiments of culture but are, rather, a medium through which identity, power and society are produced and reproduced. This is especially relevant in South and Southeast Asian contexts, where debates over heritage often have local, regional and national political implications and consequences. Reevaluating traditional valuation of monuments and cultural landscapes could help aid sustainability and long-term preservation of the heritage, this book will be useful for scholars and researchers of history, South and Southeast Asian history, heritage studies, archaeology, cultural studies, tourism studies and political history as well.

The aim of this study is to present the anthracological results from three archaeological sites located in the North, North West and South East of Sri Lanka. The study is based on the observation and analysis of 1689 charcoal fragments using for support the reference collection of South Indian wood at the Institute of Archaeology (UCL), Inside Wood (2004-onwards) and several wood anatomy atlases. Mantai (200 BCE-850 CE), an urban site, has yielded 25 taxa with significant presence of cf. Cocos nucifera among other taxa. Kantharodai (400-170-BCE), an urban site, has yielded 19 taxa from arid zones (Fabaceae, Rubiaceae), mangroves (Rhizophoraceae) and dune zones (cf. Cocos nucifera). Kirinda (500-900 CE), a fishing settlement, has yielded 24 taxa including Fabaceae (Dalbergia, Acacia) and Rubiaceae, belonging to dry deciduous forest and open savannas. This collective data set allows for the identification of discernible patterns related to the use of ecological interfaces between the forest and the open plains, used and actively managed by humans, and the possibility to identify if this changed with an increase in maritime trade and/or changes in agriculture over time. This study provides evidence of the differences in the vegetation present as well as use of wood fuel and other specific uses of wood for each site examined. It also sheds new light on tropical anthracology regarding quantification and accuracy in taxa identification.

Since Painted Grey Ware (PGW) was identified in North-Western India, seven decades have lapsed and our knowledge base about this type of pottery and the communities that made use of it has grown only very slightly. Archaeology still struggle to fill the gap between the fall of the Indus Civilisation (Late Harappan, c. 1600 BCE) and the early appearance of the so-called PGW communities. This obscure period took the label of ‘Dark Age’, and a number of hypotheses have been pushed forward in order to better understand the spread of PGW culture in the Upper Ganges Valley: the myth of an Aryan invasion is just an example. [...]

The three seasons of excavation at Kanmer revealed a large number of animal skeletal remains. This paper presents the results of the analysis carried on the excavated faunal material during the third season (2007-08) from Kanmer. More than 25,000 bone fragments were collected during this season at Kanmer; however, this report is based on a part of this collection mainly the material coming from two trenches Z29 and Z30 located in the central part of the mound. A total of 2984 fragments were analyzed from these two trenches belonging to different cultural periods. The bone identification revealed the presence of both domestic and wild mammals.

This article seeks to present a short overview of the astronomy of Sanchi and Udayagiri (near Vidisha), and a longer overview of the astronomy of the Ajanta caves 26 and 19. With regard to Sanchi and Udayagiri, it presents excerpts from the published researches in order to create a background and context for the main topic, that is, Ajanta on which subject fresh observations are being presented here for the first time to reveal a hitherto undisclosed dimension of the architecture of two magnificent monuments of Ajanta. Eventualy, the article seeks to convey that science and astronomy had a great role to play in the temple building activity in the fifth-century India.

This chapter explores the role of terracotta cattle figurines within the Ahar Culture of Chalcolithic Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. It proceeds chronologically and spatially, beginning at Balathal in Rajasthan c. 3700 BC and concluding at Kayatha in Madhya Pradesh c. 1200 BC. Drawing on the corpus of architectural, zooarchaeological, and artifactual evidence at Ahar Culture sites in both Mewar and Malwa, I demonstrate the ways in which cattle feature prominently within the Ahar Culture. Specifically, I highlight the increasing production and variation of cattle figurines, the predominance of cattle in the zooarchaeological record, indications of their use as a source of meat and dairy, and the use of cow dung in domestic and monumental architecture. I argue that cattle figurines were part of a larger socio-religious system of veneration of cattle amongst the Ahar agro-pastoral people. These figurines are often found deposited in domestic contexts, and many of the figurines at Gilund show signs of purposeful breakage. Stylized figurines, where the shape of the animal is reduced to a cylindrical stem or pedestal with horns, are particularly found in large numbers at Ahar sites in Madhya Pradesh. I propose that the Ahar sites in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh may have been connected through pastoral migration routes and the increase in the number of figurines at sites in Malwa may reflect ritual practices associated with promoting the health and strength of the herds during the hot summer months.

In P. Shivalkar and E. Prasad (eds.) Pratnamani: Felicitation Volume for Professor Vasant S. Shinde
In Press / Unpublished

Data on burial customs during the Buddhist acculturation phase are extremely scarce in Gandhara and surroundings. This article – on the basis of the unpublished results of an IsMEO excavation directed by Maurizio Taddei in 1963 – sheds new light on funerary practices in Swat (Pakistan) during the early historic period (1st century BCE-/2nd century CE). The article presents a reconstruction of previously unpublished funerary monuments interpreted also through comparisons with artistic and epigraphic evidence from Gandhara and Central Asia. The site (renamed as Butkara IV) is located between two important Buddhist sanctuaries (Butkara III and Butkara I) at the outskirts of a major ancient urban area in Middle Swat. The main monument of the site is a multiple-burial building with twenty individuals deposed inside its three chambers. The study originated from the DNA analysis, family relatedness, and associated radiocarbon dates of 5 individuals from the main monument. The article is enriched in the appendix by the study of the anthropological remains preserved in the premises of the Sapienza University of Rome.

The work presented here advances a hypothetical reconstruction of the planning and programming of the building site, the executive process, the construction and decoration, and ultimately the deconsecration and abandonment of an ancient Buddhist stupa. The chronological context is that of the mid-first to the early fourth century CE. The geographical context is the fertile and rich Swat valley, at the foot of the Karakoram-Hindukush, to the north of the ancient region of Gandhara (today in Pakistan). The study is based on archaeological excavation data conducted over several seasons, including the most recent seasons from 2011 to 2014. During the latter excavations, conducted by the Author, new data that allowed additions to be made to Domenico Faccenna’s previous studies were brought to light. Among these new insights, there are some of great importance that indicate the existence of a large central niche at the top of the stupa’s upper staircase, the key to the stupa’s figurative frieze. This frieze, which represents one of the highest moments of Gandharan Buddhist art, still imitated centuries later by celebrated artists in inner Asia (at Miran), is the product of a sculptural school guided with a sure hand by an anonymous Master, to whom the responsibility for the entire project should be attributed, architect, master builder and workshop master all in one. The existence of this so-called ‘Master of Saidu’, admirably intuited and elaborated by Faccenna, finds in this volume, if possible, further support, demonstrating the capacity of the archaeological school inaugurated by Faccenna himself to answer with ongoing excavation data the many questions that the enigma of Gandhara art still poses to scholars all over the world.

Open access
Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

One of the many distinctions of J. M. Kenoyer’s research is his emphasis on how Indus Valley material culture was used as a system of visual symbols to unify, maintain and legitimize the Civilization (Kenoyer 1995, 2000). Ceramic vessels and sherds are a ubiquitous find on 3rd millennium BC sites throughout the northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and these finds, plain,
painted and incised, are used as signifiers of any particular site’s affiliation to the Indus Valley Civilization. Shared aspects
between ceramic assemblages are rarely detailed, and generally assumed within a generic statement of ceramic affinity. As
Mark has demonstrated in his research, Harappan material culture does not simply look the same, but objects share production technologies, raw materials and design parameters. Thus, when we speak of Harappan material style, we need to include the whole package of raw material, technological know-how as well as shape and pattern. The seminal volume ‘Excavations at
Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan: The Pottery’ (Dales and Kenoyer 1986) defined a methodology for classifying vessels and sherds in such
a way that enables comparison between assemblages. This paper will explore key aspects of the ceramic corpi from Harappan period sites in the Indus Valley proper in order to create an understanding of what characteristics define the Harappan ceramic assemblage and the socio-economic processes they reflect. In this way I hope to honor Mark by exploring the social organization behind the craft of pottery production.

During the archaeological campaign of the University of Basle at the Drapham-Dzong in Bhutan from 2008 to 2010, iron slag came to light inside the 15th or 16th century monastery-castle. Moreover, in the bamboo jungle of the nearby hamlet Nag Lhakhang, a metal producing locality, a slagheap and a platform, which could possibly be the site of an ancient charcoal burner, were found. This roused the issue of whether the iron smelting stands in context with the wealth of the monastery-castle.
The detail report is writen in German with English summary.

The occurrence of similar glass beads at archaeological sites in Africa and Asia bears witness to the trade relationship between the two continents. This paper reports elemental analysis results from a recent in-depth laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA–ICP–MS) study of a group of archaeological glass beads with a specific alumina-rich composition from East Africa, India and Sri Lanka. Based on the concentrations of the trace elements, two different subgroups were identified. One subgroup occurs at early periods (fourth century bce to fifth century ace) in South India and Sri Lanka. The second subgroup appears at later dates in Africa and was identified at different Kenyan sites dated from the ninth to the 19th century ace, and at the contemporaneous site of Chaul in western India.

This is the second edition of earlier title of the same name (2013). The subtitle has been changed here a little. The book contains:

* Colour photographs of 70 Ajanta narrative paintings.
* * 84 abridged Buddhist legends.
* Elementary introduction to the Ajanta paintings.
* Information based on the current research.
* A window to deeper studies.
* References to the scholarly works that first identified the nearest textual sources of the painted legends.

Hiran Minar is yet another masterpiece of mughal architecture. Unique in design, pattern and setting, the monument adds a glorious chapter to the mughals, their love for building edifices of great strength and grandeur of noble simplicity and elegance. Hiran Minar is a hunting retreat built by Emperor Jahangir to the northwest of Lahore. It was constructed in memory of an antelope named Mansraj that was beloved by the emperor. The memorial tower stands 30 meters high and is 10 meters wide at its base. Around the perimeter are 214 holes that are believed to have been used as supports for the severed heads of animal trophies taken by the emperor.

A word-by-word explanation of the translation of the so-called creation hymn of Rigveda. The translation is very different from traditional ones.

As I demonstrate, the hymn has been completely misunderstood by previous translators.

The hymn has nothing to do with the origin or creation of the Universe. It is in fact, simply a prayer to God.

Easily the grandest example of temple architecture in the hills of Malnad, 1 the Vidyashankara temple of Sringeri stands out even in the wider Karnataka region, thanks to its unusually heterogeneous form (Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Its historiography, along with that of the Shankara matha in which it is located, has been reexamined and its chronology revised in recent years, opening the doors for a better understanding of the origins of its architecture. This architecture, long recognised as a mingling of the Tamil and Karnata temple traditions, 2 is today linked to Vijayanagara and the Hoysalas. 3 The revised chronology, however, also connects it to the Ikkeri Nayakas who dominated this region for over two centuries, during and after the rule of Vijayanagara. Avid patrons of the matha, the Ikkeri Nayakas are also known for a multi-referenced style of building. 4 This paper brings together recent scholarship on the historiography of the temple and its setting, before reexamining its architecture against the backdrop of Nayaka building works, the development of the matha, and the political context of the time.

Tekkalakota, located in Bellary District,
Karnataka, is well known as a site associated with the
Southern Neolithic period (c. 3000 - 1200 BCE). Since this
time, it has been continuously occupied, through the Iron
Age (c. 1200 - 300 BCE), Early Historic (c. 300 BCE - 600 CE),
Medieval (c. 6th century -16th century CE), and Modern (post
16th century CE) periods, although the locations of the
settlements and other areas of activity have shifted
considerably over the millennia. The MAST project is a multiyear excavation and exploration program designed to
examine the evidence for change and continuity during all
these periods. An early season of test excavations at
Tekkalakota identified deposits dating to the late stages of
the Iron Age, as well as substantial evidence for metallurgical
production. This paper will outline some of these details, as
well as plans for future investigation of earlier deposits, and
the potential implication for understanding the beginning of
the Iron Age in South India.

This article reorients archaeology's approach to things by acknowledging the moment of the encounter with the past as one of speculation. Years of scientific claim, research design and methodology place the agentive nature of research in the hands of the archaeologist: we go to the site to find the past. However, if we acquiesce to the possibility that antiquity approaches the archaeologist (rather than vice versa), then that forces us to contend with the contemporary nature of the encounter. This article considers the efficacy, urgency, and poetics of decolonization. Prologue Not all soil/miti is the same. 1