Social insects

En este trabajo se ha comparado la organización de los lóbulos antenales (LAs) y su representación topográfica en los cuerpos fungiformes (CFs) en soldados de dos especies de hormigas, Atta mexicana y Camponotus ocreatus. La comparación morfológica sugiere que los LAs de A. mexicana podrían ser más especializados que los de C. ocreatus a expensas de capacidades más generales. En ambas especies, el LA está organizado en seis grupos de glomérulos, cada uno inervado por su propio tracto. La inervación de las neuronas de proyección (NP), las cuales conectan los LAs con los CFs a través de los tractos antenoprotocerebrales (TAP), divide el LA en dos regiones, anterior y posterior. Los cálices de los CFs tienen varias capas que reciben información olfativa segregada: NP que inervan los grupos anteriores de glomérulos envían axones a través del TAP-lateral hacia el cuerno lateral (CL) y después hacia la capa interna del cáliz, mientras que las NP que inervan los grupos posteriores de glomérulos envían axones a través del TAP-medial a la capa externa del cáliz y después al CL. Estos resultados muestran que la organización del LA está representada topográficamente en los CFs formando un mapa odotópico. Las dos vías que conectan los LAs con los CFs podrían representar dos canales para el procesamiento de diferentes clases de olores o diferentes propiedades de los estímulos olfativos. Los resultados neuroanatómicos sugieren una organización funcional conservada en los himenópteros sociales.

Subterranean termites have highly cryptic life habits and their foraging activities are as a rule confined to below-ground level gallery systems. Mark–release–recapture (MRR) using fat-soluble histological dyes is a candidate method for the study of foraging dynamics and territories, but has not hitherto been standardized experimentally. A wide range of dye types and concentrations is reported in the literature. In this study, six potential dyes were evaluated at different concentrations for marking workers of Reticulitermes grassei (Clément) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), under laboratory and simulated field conditions. Neutral red (1% wt/wt) was considered the most effective while showing acceptably low toxicity. In a subsequent field trial using dye impregnated into a wooden bait, the MMR procedure was used to map the foraging territory perimeter of a single colony. Assumptions inherent in the interpretation of MMR data are reviewed. To map the foraging territory perimeter by this method, two theoretical approaches are defined (a conservative and a non-conservative hypothesis). We show that the approach adopted may affect the estimate obtained by as much as 100%. Results are discussed in the context of the ecology and behaviour of subterranean termite colonies.

Semi-natural habitats provide essential resources for pollinators within agricultural landscapes and may help maintain pollination services in agroecosystems. Yet, whether or not pollinators disperse from semi-natural habitat elements into the adjacent agricultural matrix may to a large extent depend on the quality of this matrix and the corresponding pollinatorspecific life history traits. To investigate the effects of matrix quality on the distance decay of wild bees and hoverflies, six transects along vegetated field tracks originating at a large semi-natural main habitat and leading into the adjacent agricultural matrix were established in the Wetterau Region, central Hesse, Germany. Species richness of wild bees did not change with distance from the main habitat in landscapes with sufficient grassland cover in the surrounding landscape, but significantly declined when semi-natural grasslands where scarce and isolated in the adjacent agricultural matrix. Abundance of wild bees declined with distance regardless of matrix quality. Species richness of hoverflies did not decline with increasing distance in any landscape. Abundance even increased with distance to the main habitat independently of matrix quality. Thus, our data show that taxa of the pollinator guild may perceive landscapes quite differently. Because of their differing dispersal modes and resource requirements as compared to wild bees, hoverflies may play an important role in maintaining pollination services in agricultural landscapes unsuitable for bee species. Our results highlight the need for considering these taxon-specific differences when predicting the effect of landscape structure on pollinators.

Termite queens are highly specialized for reproduction, but little is known about the endocrine mechanisms regulating this ability.
We studied changes in the endocrinology and ovarian maturation in primary reproductive females of the dampwood termite
Zootermopsis angusticollis following their release from inhibitory stimuli produced by mature queens. Winged alates were removed
from their natal nest, manually dewinged, then paired in an isolated nest with a reproductive male. Development was tracked by
monitoring ovarian development, in vitro rates of juvenile hormone (JH) production by corpora allata, and hemolymph titers of JH
and ecdysteroids. The production rate and titer of JH were positively correlated with each other but negatively correlated with
ecdysteroid titer. Four days after disinhibition, JH release and titer decreased while ecdysteroid titer increased. The new levels
persisted until day 30, after which JH increased and ecdysteroids decreased. Fully mature queens had the highest rates of JH production, the lowest ecdysteroid titers, and the greatest number of functional ovarioles. The results support the hypothesis that JH plays a dual role in termite queens depending on their stage of development; an elevated JH titer in immature alates may maintain reproductive inhibition, but an elevated JH titer in mature queens may stimulate ovarian activity. The decline in JH production and the elevation in ecdysteroid titer correspond to a period of physiological reorganization and activation. The specific function of ecdysteroids is unknown but they may help to modulate the activity of the corpora allata.

The European bumblebee, Bombus terrestris, is an invasive eusocial species whose distribution is expanding greatly beyond its native range because numerous colonies are imported to or locally produced in non-native countries for pollination of agricultural crops. Closely related species exist in Japan where the unrestricted import and use of B. terrestris has resulted in the establishment of wild colonies. Laboratory studies previously showed that B. terrestris and Japanese native species can copulate and produce fertilized eggs. Although these eggs do not hatch, the interspecific mating can cause a serious reproductive disturbance to native bumblebees. In this study, we determined the frequencies of interspecies mating between B. terrestris males and native bumblebee queens in the wild on the islands of Hokkaido and Honshu by analyzing the DNA sequences of spermatozoa stored in spermathecae of native queens. We found that 20.2% of B. hypocrita hypocrita queens and 30.2% of B. hypocrita sapporoensis queens had spermatozoa of B. terrestris males in their spermathecae. Given that a Bombus queen generally mates only once in her life, such high frequencies of interspecific mating with B. terrestris pose serious threats to the populations of native bumblebees in Japan.

To assess possible colony-level effects of fipronil, a commonly used nonrepellent termiticide, we conducted a field study of eight houses in the Raleigh, NC, area with infestations of the eastern subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). We installed an extensive grid of in-ground monitoring stations on each property (mean = 68.6 monitors per property) and collected samples from these stations as well as from mud tubes in the structure and wood debris in the yard for 6 mo. We genotyped all samples by using microsatellite markers to identify the number and locations of colonies present on each property. Houses were treated with either a full treatment (n  5) or exterior/localized interior treatment (n  3). After treatment, the monitors were checked monthly for 3 mo and then quarterly for 3 yr to track the fate of colonies. Wood debris in natural areas was checked semiannually for 3 yr. All 11 of the treated colonies (those attacking structures) disappeared within 90 d of treatment and were not found again. These colonies were presumed to be eliminated. In contrast, 60% of untreated colonies (those located 6 m from the foundation wall at the time of treatment) continued to persist throughout the study, as did 25% of the likely treated colonies (those occupying monitors 0.5 m from the foundation wall where the treatment was applied). Our results provide strong evidence for potent colony wide effects of fipronil on subterranean termites leading to colony suppression and likely colony elimination under field conditions.

Bibliographies are lists which convey idenfication information of different publications like books,
papers and articles on specific subjects in a certain order. They are prepared with the intention to provide
those who conduct studies in a certain field with the related source material in its entirety. They make it
possible to quickly review previous work on the subject being studied. They also provide an opportunity to
make more realistic, effective and less time consuming plans in reaching the target.
The first comprehensive bibliography on entomology and agricultural zoology in Turkey was
prepared by Prof. Dr. Feyzi Önder, Prof. Dr. Yusuf Karsavuran, Dr. E. Pervin Önder, Dr. Aynur Önuçar and
Dr. Ertaç Tutkun within the study framework of Turkish Entomology Association. It was printed in 1982 by the
General Directorate of Plant Protection and Quarantine under the name of “Bibliography of Entomology
and Agricultural Zoology of Turkey (Fauna, Pest Control, Pests of Plants, Methods) (1595-1978)”. The
second bibliography in this field was prepared by Prof. Dr. Feyzi Önder, Prof. Dr. Yusuf Karsavuran, Dr. E.
Pervin Önder, Dr. Ertaç Tutkun and Prof. Dr. Serdar Tezcan and was published by TURDOK, Tübitak-
Turkish Scientific and Technical Documentation Center in 1986 under the name of “Bibliography of
Entomology and Agricultural Zoology of Turkey (1979-1983)”. Bibliographical information of 4416
publications are available in the first of these bibliographies and there are 1361 of them in the second
bibliography. Bibliographical information of a total of 5777 publications are classified by topics and can be
found in these two volumes.
In the 30 years since 1983 there are numerous new research institutes and universities opened in
Turkey. As a consequence, new researchers were bred and have conducted and finished projects in the
fields of entomology and agricultural zoology. Additionally, technical developments in printing techniques
resulted with many new journals and periodicals. And, also, the number and frequency of scientific meetings
increased. All these have played a role in the considerably increased number of publications. Advancements
in the areas of communication and information technologies had marked influence on, especially, the second
half of the last 30-year period. They effected the production speed of information as well as the speed of
reaching this information. While some of the produced information was instantaneously attainable, some was
harder to be reached due to the huge amount of information output.
In the preparation phase of the book called “650 Entomologists, Acarologists and Nematologists from
Turkey with Their Brief Life Histories” written by Prof. Dr. Serdar Tezcan and Dr. Füsun Tezcan which was
published by the Entomological Society of Turkey, scientists who conducted studies in these topics were
contacted. Along with their biographical information, information concerning their publications as of
December 31, 2011 was also tried to be gathered.
Within the scope of the studies which lasted approximately seven months, authors were requested to
send in their work from their publication lists which were in line with the concept of this publication. Those
which were present in previous bibliographies were sorted out and the remaining which belonged to the 28-
year period between 1984-2011 were compiled. They were standardized to the best that it could and have
been listed alphabetically by the author last names. Those publications which belonged to a period before
1984 but not found in previous bibliographies were also included in this compilation. It should be noted that
X
this study which features 10823 publications does not contain all literature published between 1984-2011.
Some works of our colleagues could not be included in this study because they did not tend to share their
publication lists despite they were accessed. Furthermore, the publications which belonged to foreign
researchers could only be included if they were co-produced with a local colleague. Unfortunately, their other
studies could not be included. It should also be noted that, differing from previous ones, the entries in this
book are not classified according to their topics.
The contents of this study is subject to become out of date quickly due to the rapid output rate of
information today. For this reason, this book has been printed in a limited number and has been distributed
to libraries and documentation centers. In order to facilitate and spread the utilization of the book, an e-book
format of it is posted in the electronic library in the website of the Entomological Society of Turkey
(http://www.entomoloji.org.tr/). This will make it available free of charge for those local and foreign
people who wish to make use of it. The e-book can be scanned or bibliographical information can be
extracted by writing either the author of the publication, title or name of the journal after clicking on the
related file.
The pdf files of the two volumes of Bibliography of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology of
Turkey, within the scope of a graduation thesis written in 2013 in the Department of Plant Protection of Ege
University, Faculty of Agriculture, has been posted in the abovementioned website with the intention to
facilitate the scanning of publications prior to 1984. We would like to point out that this will enable the user to
make use of the old publications by using the same method.
It is technologically easy to access information today; however, it may be harder to find it in a short
period of time due to the increased speed of output of information. We are wishing that this bibliographical
reference we have prepared will further contribute to the production of new knowledge today. We are
thinking that the target audience who would make use of this reference book is comprised of researchers in
the fields of biology, agriculture, forestry, veterinary, medicine, environmental sciences and standing on the
top of the list are our young colleagues who will study in the fields of entomology, acarology and nematology.
We would like to extend our gratitutes to the President of the Entomological Society of Turkey, Prof.
Dr. Enver Durmuşoğlu and to the members of the Board of Directors for their support by assuming the
printing of this study and posting its e-book form in their website which will make it possible to reach the
target audience. We would like to thank to all our colleagues, dear families and colleagues of our deceased
colleagues who have made this book possible by sending in information. We also would like to extend our
cordial thanks to Mr. Olcay Sütüven and his valued colleagues for their dedicated and meticulous work in
materializing the printing of this book.
March 2013, Bornova
Serdar TEZCAN-Füsun TEZCAN-Nilay GÜLPERÇİN

This lecture will use juvenile hormone (JH) as a lens through which to view research on division of labor, past, present and future. Drawing primarily on studies of division of labor among workers in honey bee colonies, I will show how JH studies also provide deeper insights into both the biology of social insects and the changing nature of biological research. Topics include: evolutionary aspects of JH regulation; connections between JH, insulin signaling and nutrition; and new, systems biology-inspired, views of JH. I will close by using this example of an integrative analysis of organismal biology to consider challenges and opportunities as a new era in biological research begins.

Studies on the role of juvenile hormone (JH) in adult social Hymenoptera have focused on the regulation of two fundamental aspects of colony organization: reproductive division of labor between queens and workers and age-related division of labor among workers. JH acts as a gonadotropin in the primitively eusocial wasp and bumble bee species studied, and may also play this role in the advanced eusocial fire ants. However, there is no evidence that JH acts as a traditional gonadotropin in the advanced eusocial honey bee or in the few other ant species that have recently begun to be studied. The role of JH in agerelated division of labor has been most thoroughly examined in honey bees. Results of these studies demonstrate that JH acts as a “behavioral pacemaker,” influencing how fast a worker grows up and makes the transition from nest activities to foraging. Hypotheses concerning the evolutionary relationship between the two functions of JH in adult eusocial Hymenoptera are discussed.

The successful life of insect societies has evolved from the division of labor among more or less specialized individuals, who carry out all necessary tasks for the maintenance and growth of the colony. The extreme division of labor has produced workers specialized in the removal of dead members of the colony, an evident and highly stereotyped behavior called undertaking which consists of the ability to recognize and dispose of the dead members of the colony using specific chemical cues. Although living in enclosed nests has contributed to the ecological success of social insects due to environmental control, it also poses disadvantages. Nests of social insects, containing dense groups of genetically close individuals with frequent physical contact, present ideal conditions for the incidence and dispersion of infectious diseases. To maintain strict microbiological control inside the nest, these insects have evolved hygienic behavioral strategies to avoid and control the proliferation of pathogens. Undertaking behavior is one of the fundamental strategies to exert microbiological control inside the nest by means of suitable management and removal of dead members of the colony, to prevent the emergence of epidemics that may lead the insect society to extinction. Therefore, undertaking behavior has been fundamental to the evolution of social insects. This stereotyped behavior constitutes an excellent model for the understanding of both social evolution and the neurobiological basis of social behavior. In this paper, we review the present knowledge on undertaking behavior, and outline some perspectives of the study of such farreaching behavior of social organization.

""In many cultural fields honeybees reveal themselves as a highly generative species; one that humans have become dependent on.  Within the backdrop of Colony Collapse Disorder, this essay examines how live bees are used in the production of art works.  Historically, bees have been an absent presence in art as artists have relied upon bees for the raw material they create (wax, honeycomb) and for their metaphorical value.  Most recently, bees themselves have become art by being transformed into sculptural objects or employed in collaborative insect/human performances that depend upon their embodied labor and participation. Using a bee-centric approach, we track the bees’ path across human art worlds, attentive to the complex ecological, agricultural, and cultural systems they co-create. These interspecies exchanges testify not only to trends in contemporary art, but larger ideas about animal/human boundaries and contemporary environmental issues.
""

The successful life of insect societies has evolved from the division of labor among more or less specialized individuals, who carry out all necessary tasks for the maintenance and growth of the colony. The extreme division of labor has produced workers specialized in the removal of dead members of the colony, an evident and highly stereotyped behavior called undertaking which consists of the ability to recognize and dispose of the dead members of the colony using specific chemical cues. Although living in enclosed nests has contributed to the ecological success of social insects due to environmental control, it also poses disadvantages. Nests of social insects, containing dense groups of genetically close individuals with frequent physical contact, present ideal conditions for the incidence and dispersion of infectious diseases. To maintain strict microbiological control inside the nest, these insects have evolved hygienic behavioral strategies to avoid and control the proliferation of pathogens. Undertaking behavior is one of the fundamental strategies to exert microbiological control inside the nest by means of suitable management and removal of dead members of the colony, to prevent the emergence of epidemics that may lead the insect society to extinction. Therefore, undertaking behavior has been fundamental to the evolution of social insects. This stereotyped behavior constitutes an excellent model for the understanding of both social evolution and the neurobiological basis of social behavior. In this paper, we review the present knowledge on undertaking behavior, and outline some perspectives of the study of such far-reaching behavior of social organization.

The emergence of dramatic morphological differences (disparity) and the ensuing bewildering increase in the number of species (diversity) documented in the fossil record at key stages of animal and plant evolution have defied, and still defy, the explanatory powers of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Among the best examples that have captured the imagination of the layman and the interest of scores of scientists for  years are the origins of land plants from aquatic green plants, of flowering plants from seed plants, of chordates from non-chordates and of tetrapod vertebrates from non-tetrapods; and the conquest of the land by amphibians; the emergence of endotherms from ectotherm animals; the recurrent invention of flight (e.g. in arthropods, birds and mammals) from non-flying ancestors; and the origin of aquatic mammals from fourlegged terrestrial ancestors.

Taxonomic notes are presented on the Polistes stigma species group of the subgenus Polistella Ashmead, 1904, of the genus Polistes Latreille, 1802, in continental Southeast Asia. Three new species are described and illustrated: Polistes brunus Nguyen & Carpenter, new species; P. communalis Nguyen, Vu & Carpenter, new species; and P. tenebris Nguyen & Lee, new species. A key to these species is provided. Their nests are also described.

Genetic drift represents the punctuated equilibrium theory, the shifting balance theory, the allopatric speciation theory, the species selection theory and work in small isolated populations. Those theories advocated that all plants and animals man arose through macroevolution. However, genetic drift and small isolated populations are the key factors of those theories. But genetic drift loses/changes the gene frequency randomly, which are very harmful to any organism and thus could not produce any new species. Again, drift unfits to create any variation (raw material of evolution). Again, small isolated populations and produce homozygous organisms. Those organisms have low fecundity, suffer from various disease, least fitted to survive and may extinct suddenly, e.g. American heath hen. Thus, any kind of evolution is quite impossible through those theories. Therefore, biologists rejected the genetic drift, shifting balance theory (a condition to declare invalid of those theories) and also the punctuated equilibrium theory as the theory of evolution. Again, the fossil is the only evidence of those theories but fossil opposes macroevolution (another condition to declare invalid of those theories) but support the gradual evolution. Moreover, evolution is reasonably absurd by the extinction of living organism. Consequently, those theories are invalid and no one plant and animal including human arose through those theories. Hence, Darwinists, Neo-Darwinists and Sociobiology’s oppose those theories.

"The poison gland and Dufour’s gland are the two glands associated with the sting apparatus in female
Apocrita (Hymenoptera). While the poison gland usually functions as an integral part of the venom delivery
system, the Dufour’s gland has been found to differ in its function in various hymenopteran groups.
Like all exocrine glands, the function of the Dufour’s gland is to secrete chemicals, but the nature and
function of the secretions varies in different taxa. Functions of the Dufour’s gland secretions range from
serving as a component of material used in nest building, larval food, and pheromones involved in communicative
functions that are important for both solitary and social species. This review summarizes the
different functions reported for the Dufour’s gland in hymenopterans, illustrating how the Dufour’s gland
secretions can be adapted to give rise to various functions in response to different challenges posed by the
ways of life followed by different taxa. Aspects of development, structure, chemistry and the evolution of
different functions are also touched upon briefly."

"Brower explores the way philosophers were inspired by entomological social systems and communication to reflect on human psyche, social behavior, community organization, communication, and inter-individual relationships. His essay rehearses the swarms of insects embedded in contemporary philosophy and literary theory, not only showing how many of the major concepts (or philosophemes) in continental philosophy – sexuality, politics, thinking, time, interdependence, and language – draw lessons from the world of insects, but also illustrating again how the insect world spurred human reflection."

Aunque la construcción de nidos encerrados en cavidades contribuyó a la expansión geográfica de los insectos sociales, también implicó la necesidad de incrementar las conductas de limpieza, como la remoción de los cadáveres, con lo que disminuye la posibilidad del surgimiento de enfermedades. El comportamiento necroforético es uno de los patrones conductuales más evidentes y estereotipados que las hormigas presentan. De la misma manera en que las hormigas reconocen a los compañeros de nido o a ciertas castas, ellas son capaces de reconocer a los muertos a través de señales particulares que éstos presentan y que son subproductos de la descomposición bacteriana, las cuales son llamadas necromonas.

The bee hieroglyph is one of the most recognisable animal images in Egyptian art and inscriptions. The motif reliably shows the insect with five legs – four limbs under its thorax and a longer fifth leg that extends to the rear of its body. Bees possess six legs; therefore, to conform with Egyptian principles of graphic representation, the bee glyph should either display all six legs or a side-view with just three. The meaning of the bee’s enigmatic fifth leg is discussed and a possible interpretation proposed.

A 20. század második felében a sáskajárások gyakorisága Magyarországon és a tágabb térségben radikálisan lecsökkent; ugyanakkor az utóbbi évezredben egészen 1947-ig a sáskák tömeges megjelenése, és a mezőgazdasági termelésben okozott károk tekintetében a sáska az egyik leggyakoribb és legjelentősebb inváziós fajnak tekinthető. S habár jelenleg a probléma nem "aktuális" Európa nagy részén (beleértve Közép-Európát is), a 2004. évi északnyugatafrikai nagy sáskajárás, melyet a szakértők még a térségben dúló háborúknál is jelentősebb rizikótényezőként emeltek ki (lásd pl.: www.origo.hu), Dél-Oroszországban is nagy veszteségeket okozott.

We analysed morphological variation among 17 forewing characters within five populations of the paper wasp, Polistes dominulus, in iran. The raw planar coordinate data were aligned using geometric and mathematical calculations in kendall's shape space. After transfer of the data to a linear euclidean space, i.e., tangent space, multivariate analysis of 135 images of forewings were made using their geometric morphometric characters (30 in the forewings). We observed a direct correlation between morphological characters and the geographically easiest travel distance along river valleys and mountain ranges.

Orchid bees (Euglossini) provide a potentially informative contrast for examining origins of advanced social behaviour in bees because they are the only tribe in the apine clade that do not form large colonies or have queens and workers. We investigated natural nests of Euglossa hyacinthina Dressler, an orchid bee that nests singly or in groups. By comparing the two types of nests, we examined if individuals in a group merely share the nest (are communal) or exhibit a level of social organization where there is reproductive division of labour among the females. Observations are consistent with communal nesting, indicating that all females in group nests are reproductively similar to the solitary nesting females because the provisioning of young, as well as the ovary development and mating status of females sharing nests were not different than that of solitary-nesting females. Also, multiple female nests did not produce a female-biased brood as predicted for nests with reproductive division of labour. We also investigated potential advantages of group nesting vs. individual nesting. We demonstrate that per capita offspring production is lower in nests with more than one female. However, we found that nests with single females were left unattended for longer periods of time during foraging, and that there was a high incidence of natural enemy attack in nests when females were absent. Group and solitary nesting may be advantageous under different conditions.

Altruistic behavior, in which one individual provides aid to another at some cost to itself, is well documented. However, some species engage in a form of altruism, called rescue, that places the altruist in immediate danger. Here we investigate one such example, namely rescuing victims captured by predators. In a field experiment with two North American ant species, Tetramorium sp. E and Prenolepis imparis, individuals were held in artificial snares simulating capture. T. sp. E, but not P. imparis, exhibited digging, pulling, and snare biting, the latter precisely targeted to the object binding the victim. These results are the first to document precision rescue in a North American ant species; moreover, unlike rescue in other ants, T. sp. E rescues conspecifics from different colonies, mirroring their atypical social behavior, namely the lack of aggression between non-nestmate (heterocolonial) conspecifics. In a second, observational study designed to demonstrate rescue from an actual predator, T. sp. E victims were dropped into an antlion's pit and the behavior of a single rescuer was observed. Results showed that T. sp. E not only attempted to release the victim, but also risked attacking the predator, suggesting that precision rescue may play an important role in this species' antipredator behavior.

Queen pheromones, which signal the presence of a fertile queen and induce daughter workers to remain sterile, are considered to play a key role in regulating the reproductive division of labor of insect societies. Although queen pheromones were long thought to be highly taxon-specific, recent studies have shown that structurally related long-chain hydrocarbons act as conserved queen signals across several independently evolved lineages of social insects. These results imply that social insect queen pheromones are very ancient and likely derived from an ancestral signalling system that was already present in their common solitary ancestors. Based on these new insights, we here review the literature and speculate on what signal precursors social insect queen pheromones may have evolved from. Furthermore, we provide compelling evidence that these pheromones should best be seen as honest signals of fertility as opposed to suppressive agents that chemically sterilize the workers against ...

Obligate mutualisms require filtering mechanisms to prevent their exploitation by opportunists , but ecological contexts and traits facilitating the evolution of such mechanisms are largely unknown. We investigated the evolution of filtering mechanisms in an epiphytic ant–plant symbiotic system in Fiji involving Rubiaceae and dolichoderine ants, using field experiments, metabolomics, X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) scanning and phylogenetics. We discovered a novel plant reward consisting of sugary sap concealed in post-anthetic flowers only accessible to Philidris nagasau workers that bite through the thick epidermis. In five of the six species of Rubiaceae obligately inhabited by this ant, the nectar glands functioned for 10 d after a flower's sexual function was over. Sugar metabolomics and field experiments showed that ant foraging tracks sucrose levels, which only drop at the onset of fruit development. Ontogenetic analyses of our focal species and their relatives revealed a 25-fold increase in nectary size and delayed fruit development in the ant-rewarding species, and Bayesian analyses of several traits showed the correlated evolution of sugar rewards and sym-biosis specialization. Concealed floral nectar forestalls exploitation by opportunists (generalist ants) and stabilizes these obligate mutualisms. Our study pinpoints the importance of partner choice mechanisms in transitions from facultative to obligate mutualisms.

This study was carried out to determine the effects of oxalic acid (OA) on reducing Varroa mite (Varroa destructor) populations in honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies in the fall. Twenty honeybee colonies, in wooden Langstroth hives, were used in this experiment. Average Varroa infestation levels (%) of the OA and control groups were 25.87% and 24.57% on adult workers before the treatments. The OA treatments were applied twice, on 3 November and 13 November 2006. Average Varroa infestation levels were 5.24% and 31.43% after the first application and 2.87% and 41.74% after the second application in the OA and control groups, respectively. Average efficacy of OA was 93.40%. No queens were lost, and there was no brood or adult honeybee mortality in any of the colonies during the experiment.

Bees are dependent on flower nectar and pollen (main sources of protein and energy, respectively) and have an important economic and ecological role as pollinators, representing about 40 to 90% of phanerogams pollinators in several ecosystems. This work presents a description of bee species from Parque Municipal da Cachoeirinha in Iporá, Goiás state, Brazil. A total of 58 hours of capturing were performed on November and December 2004 and on March and May 2005. A total of 933 individuals were collected, distributed in one family, 16 tribes, 33 genera, and 62 species. Meliponini tribe presented the highest number of individuals and species. Most abundant species were Trigona chanchamayoensis (16.51%), Tetragona clavipes (14.79%) and Apis mellifera and Trigona recursa (12.33%). This work presents the first occurrence in Goiás state for six genera and 12 species.

Ant colonies, and more generally social insect societies, are distributed systems that, in spite of the simplicity of their individuals, present a highly structured social organization. As a result of this organization, ant colonies can accomplish complex tasks that in some cases far exceed the individual capacities of a single ant. The study of ant colonies behavior and of their self-organizing capacities is interesting for computer scientists because it provides models of distributed organization which are useful to solve difficult optimization and distributed control problems. In this paper we overview some models derived from the observation of real ants, emphasizing the role played by stigmergy as distributed communication paradigm, and we show how these models have inspired a number of novel algorithms for the solution of distributed optimization and distributed control problems.

In termites, division of labor among castes, categories of individuals that perform specialized tasks, increases colonylevel productivity and is the key to their ecological success. Although molecular studies on caste polymorphism have been performed in termites, we are far from a comprehensive understanding of the molecular basis of this phenomenon. To facilitate future molecular studies, we aimed to construct expressed sequence tag (EST) libraries covering wide ranges of gene repertoires in three representative termite species, Hodotermopsis sjostedti, Reticulitermes speratus and Nasutitermes takasagoensis. We generated normalized cDNA libraries from whole bodies, except for guts containing microbes, of almost all castes, sexes and developmental stages and sequenced them with the 454 GS FLX titanium system. We obtained >1.2 million quality-filtered reads yielding >400 million bases for each of the three species. Isotigs, which are analogous to individual transcripts, and singletons were produced by assembling the reads and annotated using public databases. Genes related to juvenile hormone, which plays crucial roles in caste differentiation of termites, were identified from the EST libraries by BLAST search. To explore the potential for DNA methylation, which plays an important role in caste differentiation of honeybees, tBLASTn searches for DNA methyltransferases (dnmt1, dnmt2 and dnmt3) and methyl-CpG binding domain (mbd) were performed against the EST libraries. All four of these genes were found in the H. sjostedti library, while all except dnmt3 were found in R. speratus and N. takasagoensis. The ratio of the observed to the expected CpG content (CpG O/E), which is a proxy for DNA methylation level, was calculated for the coding sequences predicted from the isotigs and singletons. In all of the three species, the majority of coding sequences showed depletion of CpG O/E (less than 1), and the distributions of CpG O/E were bimodal, suggesting the presence of DNA methylation.

While chemical communication regulates individual behavior in a wide variety of species, these communication systems are most elaborated in insect societies. In these complex systems, pheromones produced by the reproductive individuals (queens) are critical in establishing and maintaining dominant reproductive status over hundreds to thousands of workers. The proximate and ultimate mechanisms by which these intricate pheromone communication systems evolved are largely unknown, though there has been much debate over whether queen pheromones function as a control mechanism or as an honest signal facilitating cooperation. Here, we summarize results from recent studies in honey bees, bumble bees, wasps, ants and termites. We further discuss evolutionary mechanisms by which queen pheromone communication systems may have evolved. Overall, these studies suggest that queen-worker pheromone communication is a multicomponent, labile dialog between the castes, rather than a simple, fixed signal-response system. We also discuss future approaches that can shed light on the proximate and ultimate mechanisms that underlie these complex systems by focusing on the development of increasingly sophisticated genomic tools and their potential applications to examine the molecular mechanisms that regulate pheromone production and perception.

True agriculture-defined by habitual planting, cultivation, harvesting and dependence of a farmer on a crop-is known from fungi farmed by ants, termites or beetles, and plants farmed by humans or ants. Because farmers supply their crops with nutrients, they have the potential to modify crop nutrition over evolutionary time. Here we test this hypothesis in ant/plant farming symbioses. We used field experiments, phylogenetic-comparative analyses and computed-tomography scanning to investigate how the evolution of farming by ants has impacted the nutrition of locally coexisting species in the epiphytic genus Squamellaria (Rubiaceae). Using isotope-labelled mineral and organic nitrogen, we show that specialised ants actively and exclusively fertilise hyperabsorptive warts on the inner walls of plant-formed structures (domatia) where they nest, sharply contrasting with nitrogen provisioning by ants in nonfarm-ing generalist symbioses. Similar hyperabsorptive warts have evolved repeatedly in lineages colonised by farming ants. Our study supports the idea that millions of years of ant agriculture have remodelled plant physiology, shifting from ant-derived nutrients as by-products to active and targeted fertilisa-tion on hyperabsorptive sites. The increased efficiency of ant-derived nutrient provisioning appears to stem from a combination of farming ant behaviour and plant 'crop' traits.