Social Inequality

The paper aims to present the first results of an in-depth and source-based research about socio-economic inequalities and agricultural growth in the Late Medieval Florentine society.
This area has been intensively studied because of its economic relevance and the rise of a peculiar share-cropping system (mezzadria). Mezzadria lease contracts spread broadly in Tuscany at the end of the Middle Ages (13th c.), linked to the building of the regional city-state by the city-commune of Florence and its raising economy. The system developed before the demographic shocks of Late Middle Ages and continued to develop further during the decline of the Florentine economy in 15th-16th centuries. The role of mezzadria in shaping declining economic trends and socio-economic inequalities, as well as the causes of its rise, are still debated among scholars.
This research would offer an original contribute on these issues through a new in-depth consultation of the Florentine fiscal surveys of the 15th and 16th centuries (the Catasto of 1427 and the Decima repubblicana of the early 16th century) and the use of a social agro-systemic approach. The information entered from sources will be used to draw a picture of the social and property structure of four different sub-regional study-areas within the Florentine territory (characterized by differences in the importance of institutions, in property distribution, in environmental features), comparing the trends and their causal relations for regional differences. The goal is drawing: 1) a more complete figure of agricultural output of mezzadria –  comparing different systems of exploitation and subregions –; 2) an in-depth figure of socio-economic inequalities – property and income distribution, ownership of oxen, access to credit and fiscal incomes. In this way it will be possible to offer a more detailed pattern of explanation of the main dynamics of Late Medieval rural Tuscany.

This paper examines the problem of the wider economic and political context for any project aimed at achieving a fairer educational system. The consequences of the current status quo can be seen in diminishing funding and rising inequalities. The paper argues that the answer lies not in tinkering with an unjust educational system but rather in big bold initiatives that are transformative rather than incremental. Introduction At a time when, according to a recent editorial in the Sunday Times (May 7 2017), the British no longer resent the rich but rather celebrate their success and try to join them, the prevailing attitude to poverty is that the poor need to pull themselves up by their bootstraps, seize their opportunities, develop resilience, and become as successful as the already privileged without access to the resources and connections that make such success possible. The Rich List in the same issue of The Sunday Times proudly celebrates the fact that the richest in society increased their wealth by 14% in 2016.According to the Resolution Foundation (2013) between 1995 and 2010 the top 1% of earners saw their slice of pre-tax income increase from 7% to 10% while the bottom 50% of the UK population saw their share drop from 19% to 18%.

We can chart how similar characteristics are inscribed, marked and stuck on other bodies too: femininity; hypersexuality; criminality, for example, whilst others do not. But before we explore this condensing, sticking and fixing process we need to understand four other processes that provide the framework for the rest of the book. Firstly, how do certain bodies become
inscribed and then marked with certain characteristics?  Secondly, what systems of exchange enable some characteristics to be read as good, bad, worthy and unworthy? Thus, how is value attributed, accrued, institutionalised and lost in the processes of exchange? And how is this value both moral and economic?  Thirdly, how is value produced through different perspectives (different ways of knowing, hearing and seeing that represent particular interests)? Then fourthly, we need to know how these systems of inscription, exchange, valuing, institutionalisation and perspective provide the conditions of possibility for being read
by others in the relationships that are formed between groups; what are the effects? This, therefore, is a book about he condition of possibility that make class. It is not about how class is lived

Social fragmentation of urban life is a common and growing process in most Latin American big cities. In spite of the strong link between urban studies and youth studies, the relationship between contemporary processes of socio‐spatial fragmentation and the youth experience of the city remains still today under‐explored. This chapter examines the complex relationship between space, class and gender inequalities, and how they interrelate to shape young people’s urban experience and sociability. The expansion of residential segregation, gated communities, new public spaces, insecurity and fears, among
other contemporary urban features, have a strong impact in young people's urban life, which is mediated by the class and gender conditions. Drawing on qualitative fieldwork, interviews and focus groups with privileged and disadvantaged youth in Mexico City, the analysis focuses in two main issues: on the one hand, the processes of "unequal inclusion" and "reciprocal exclusion" in the city, and, on the other hand, the patterns of urban social interaction based on mutual stigmatization and lack of social recognition.

This paper explores the way in which feminism, whilst trying to achieve gender equality, has increased inequality between women.  It locates the cause of this in feminism's early adoption of Marxist and Engelsian thought and the way in which these two thinkers misconstrued the relationship between private and public domains.

This paper deals with health care waste management. It outlines the types of health care waste relating of pathological waste, chemical waste and hazards from health care waste. This paper makes a special note on management of hazardous healthcare waste, waste handling procedure, waste minimization methods, segregation of health care waste, recycling and reuse of health care waste and health care waste treatment. This paper sheds light on prevention and control of risk to the health workers consequent upon handling health care waste. This paper concludes with some interesting findings.

The modern workplace is a pivotal arena for shaping societal gender inequalities. This chapter reviews theory and research on gender inequality in workplace organizations. We first provide a quick historical overview of the role of gender in the modern division of labor and present data on intersectional patterns of gender inequality in labor force participation, as well as horizontal and vertical occupational sex segregation. We then discuss prevailing theoretical explanations for these inequalities, moving from individual-level theories to structural and organizational explanations. This is followed by a review of empirical evidence on gender inequality at work, beginning with studies exploring the cultural, relational and structural mechanisms for reproducing gender inequality in organizations and moving to discussing research on mechanisms for reducing inequality. We argue that more theory and research ought to be focused on the remediation of inequality and discuss two directions: the first is an institutional theory of remediation, examining the ways in which institutional environments and actors can weaken gendered organization; and the second is a political theory focusing on the means and conditions for women to act as agents of organizational change. We conclude with suggestions for future research and theory development.

La responsabilidad por las opiniones expresadas en los libros, artículos, estudios y otras colaboraciones incumbe exclusivamente a los autores firmantes, y su publicación no necesariamente refleja los puntos de vista de la Secretaría Ejecutiva de CLACSO.

This research analyzed the violence against women in Muna that was focused on the root causes of violence, forms of violence, and its protection and resolution. It used gender perspective, constructivist paradigm, and qualitative approach. The collected data was qualitative data that was obtained through depth interview, observation of passive participative, as well as library research. Gender relations in Muna were unequal in which domination, subordination, marginalization, discrimination, violence, double burden, and stereotype by men to women. It was found that root causes of violence were patriarchal culture, drinking alcohol, economic factors, infidelity, and the seizure of child custody for a divorced spouse. The forms of violence that occur were physical, sexual, economic, psychic, exploitation, and trafficking, which occur in the domestic, public, and state spheres. The unique thing in Muna was the resolution of violence against women through indigenous institution that could be accepted by all parties to the conflict.

Purpose: To investigate whether social capital may explain differences in teen pregnancy rates in the contiguous United States. Method: State-level correlational analyses were conducted. Predictor variables included social capital, income inequality, and poverty. Main Outcome Measure: State-level rates of pregnancy for girls 15-19 years old. Results: In bivariate analyses, social capital was inversely correlated with teen pregnancy rates. The obtained correlation was strong (r ϭ Ϫ.78) and achieved significance (p Ͻ .001). Poverty and income inequality were also significantly correlated with teen pregnancy rates, but the magnitude of these correlations was lower. In a linear regression model, poverty failed to retain significance; however, income inequality achieved significance and produced a Beta value of .24 (p ϭ .017). Social capital was nonetheless a much stronger multivariate predictor of teen pregnancy rates (producing a Beta value of Ϫ.672). Conclusion: Findings from this state-level analysis suggest that social capital may explain differences between states with respect to teen pregnancy rates. Thus, social capital may play an important role in the prevention of teen pregnancy. This initial finding warrants subsequent empirical investigations designed to identify strategies that can be employed to foster the creation of social capital in communities and entire states.

The concept of "employee flexibility," and its implementation, have taken a central place in industrial sociology and human resources management during the last several decades. The two types of flexibility most often adopted in the workplace are functional and numerical. Employees and their labour unions approve of functional flexibility more often than numerical flexibility, which is usually rejected. This study is designed to examine the associations between functional and numerical flexibility with job rewards. Using 2002 General Social Survey (GSS) and Current Population Survey (CPS) data, the findings reveal significantly higher rewards for functionally flexible jobs while rewards associated with numerically flexible jobs vary significantly between and within two major categories — standard and nonstandard jobs. Among those with nonstandard jobs, independent contractors have significantly better opportunity for job rewards than other groups, such as regular part-time or on-call workers. The paper ends with a discussion on the theoretical significance of the findings and their policy implications. Le concept et sa pratique de «la flexibilité de l'employé» prennent une position centrale dans la sociologue industrielle et la gestion des ressources humaines depuis plusieurs décennies. Deux types de la flexibilité, celle de fonction et celle de nombre d'employés, plus que les autres, ont été adoptée dans l'emploi. Les employés et leurs syndicats ont été accepté avec enthousiasme la flexibilité de fonction tandis qu'ils ont en majeure partie rejeté la flexibilité de nombre. Pour illustrer les attitudes des employés, cette étude a comme but d'examiner les rapports entre la flexibilité de fonction et celle de nombre avec des récompenses du travail. En utilisant les données, du GSS et du CPS, les recherches révèlent que les emplois formulés à partir du concept de la flexibilité de fonction donnent sensiblement plus de récompenses que les emplois formulés a base du concept de la flexibilité de nombre. Les récompenses gagnés par la formulation de jobs à base du concept de la flexibilité de nombre varient considérablement entre et à l'intérieur des deux catégories principales, celle des emplois standard et celle des emplois non-standard. Parmi les travailleurs, les entrepreneurs indépendants ont une meilleure possibilité des récompenses que les autres groupes d'employés, comme, par exemple, mi-temps régulier ou sur appeler des ouvriers. Cette étude finit par une discussion de l'importance théorique de ces recherches et de ses implications possibles sur la formulation de certaines politiques.

This article explores the patterns of class inequality and capital accumulation in Brazil, showing the drivers and limits of the decline in inequality that occurred during the Workers' Party governments. It proposes that minimum wage hikes and greater social security changed the demand pattern and kick-started a cumulative causation process. Growth and redistribution thus reinforced each other for a period, and then spelled their own limits. As growth accelerated in the 2000s, a Gini decomposition indicates that class inequality decreased, but confined to changes between workers-capitalist income and social stratification were preserved. This also endogenously led to a re-gressive structural change, as low-productivity, labour-intensive services grew and international trade patterns worsened. This created a medium-term dependence on commodity prices for balance-of-trade solvency, and heightened cost-push inflation, which could not be overcome under the limited policy framework in place. The constrained basis for reducing inequality and the regressive structural change underscore that developmental strategies requires broad, multi-dimensional inequality-reducing measures and an encompassing catching-up project.

This article examines how new modes of Internet governance and policies intended to expand Internet inclusion unfold in the marginalized communities of Rio de Janeiro. In April 2014, Brazil enacted the Marco Civil da Internet (MCI), an “Internet Bill of Rights” that promotes collaborative, democratic digital governance and regards Internet access as a requisite for civil rights. Rio’s favelas are territories where many of the intended beneficiaries of the Internet access policies live. Yet, drug gangs often control favela neighborhoods and censor the digital access of favela residents, which is just one example of how Internet access in disadvantaged communities is tied to a number of broader socio-political realities and risks. Because these risks index larger disjunctions in contemporary Brazilian democracy, I propose that violence and informal governance in urban favelas creates a corresponding disjunction in the MCI’s pledge of Internet access as a civil right.

In the framework of the current wave of home repossessions, many Spanish households struggle to keep up with repayments before going into arrears. Their financial vulnerability is not a simple function of the availability of income as they are repaying debts. Rather, it is to be understood in combination with a differential access to other resources that may help households to cope with hardship. Factors that help to keep up with repayments may include the availability of material aid and non-economic resources, such as information or social connections. But, at a certain stage, debtors may benefit less from aid to keep up with repayments, than from the advice to give them up, a decision that implies challenging the moral obligation to repay and devoting much time and effort to negotiation with the creditor. The availability of these resources needs to be considered in order to understand the (re)production of social inequalities linked to financial vulnerability as a result of mortgage default.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess social inequality in use of dental services by examination of visiting for relief of pain and receipt of extractions. Methods: Data were collected in the period of 2004-06, from a stratified clustered sample of Australians aged 15+ years, using a computer-aided telephone interview. Analysis was restricted to n=10,099 dentate adults. Results: Visiting for relief of pain varied by age, country of birth, education and income with lower odds (Odds ratio, 95%CI) among 55-74 (0.43, 0.35-0.54) and 75+ year-olds (0.22, 0.15-0.33) compared to the 15-34 year-olds, lower odds among Australianborn persons (0.82,0.69-0.98) compared to those born overseas, higher odds for those with no post-secondary education (1.31, 1.

Zweite Vorlesung: Begriff und Dimensionen sozialer Ungleichheit 1. Gleichheit der Individuen als Ideal. 2. Natürliche versus soziale Unterschie-de. 3. Die ungleiche Verteilung entäußerbarer Ressourcen. 4. Weitere Dimensionen sozialer Ungleichheit. 5. Nation oder Weltgesellschaft als Objekt der Analyse? In der letzten Woche haben wir uns-zur Einführung in das Thema der Vor-lesung-mit der Einkommensgleichheit als Zielgröße der gesellschaftlichen Ent-wicklung und Kriterium für die Beurteilung der Güte eines Gesellschaftszustands beschäftigt. Was unter Gleichheit in dieser Funktion genauer zu verstehen sei, kam noch nicht so richtig zur Sprache. Angesprochen habe ich die enge Verflechtung der Soziologie mit dem Thema sozialer Gleichheit (oder Ungleichheit). Auch ha-be ich dargelegt, dass Gleichheit keineswegs die einzige Zielgröße der Entwicklung ist. Bedeutende Denker wie z.B. Hegel haben als Ziel der Geschichte nicht die Verwirklichung der Gleichheit, sondern die Verwirklichung der Freiheit angesehen. Wir verfolgen diese geschichtsphilosophischen Kontroversen nicht weiter und wir vertiefen auch nicht die Diskussion um Bewertungsstandards gesellschaftlicher Zu-stände. In der Vorlesung heute geht es vor allem darum, ein möglichst genaues Konzept sozialer Ungleichheit zu erarbeiten. Insbesondere möchte ich zeigen, dass Gleichheit-und damit auch Ungleichheit-ein mehrdimensionales Konzept ist. Eine höchstmögliche Schärfung dieses Begriffs ist ihr Ziel. Wir beginnen mit der Frage: Was verstehen wir unter Ungleichheit und was insbesondere unter sozialer Ungleichheit? 1. Ganz allgemein gesehen besteht Ungleichheit immer in einer Abweichung von der Gleichheit. Das ist die denkbar abstrakteste Definition des Begriffs. Die Referenzgröße der Definition ist damit die Gleichheit. Ungleichheit beinhaltet im-mer eine Negation der Gleichheit in wenigstens einer spezifischen Hinsicht. Eine Definition der Ungleichheit setzt insofern ein Vorverständnis von Gleichheit voraus. Soweit Ungleichheit immer in einer Abweichung von der Gleichheit besteht, liegt es nahe, Gleichheit sowohl normativ als auch historisch als ursprünglicher zu

This chapter assesses the impact of new forms of schooling in London. It debates whether London education is currently in an unsettled phase which may be an early indication of a future post-competition era for education in England. The chapter opens by outlining the social and political history of comprehensive secondary education in the capital. The chapter goes on to consider recent Select Committee evidence on social and academic segregation in the context of school choice, selection and achievement in London. The tension between the standards/inclusion agenda and tackling disadvantage is explored. The chapter concludes with an examination of trusts, federations and extended schools, followed by an assessment of the impact which new governance arrangements might have on social inequalities among London schools.

L'articolo presenta alcune riflessioni sul fenomeno della ricchezza a partire dal libro curato da Franzini, Granaglia e Raitano, Dobbiamo preoccuparci dei ricchi? (2014). In particolare viene discusso, da una prospettiva sociologica, chi sono i ricchi, come si diventa ricchi e quali sono le conseguenze della (eccessiva) concentrazione della ricchezza. Il punto centrale dell'articolo, ripreso dal libro di Franzini e colleghi, è che il raggiungimento delle posizioni sociali che garantiscono un elevato reddito non dipende -solo -dalle capacità e dallo sforzo individuale, ma anche o soprattutto dalla posizione privilegiata di partenza. Si argomenta poi che un'elevata concentrazione della ricchezza ha effetti negativi per la società nel suo insieme, in quanto ostacola la mobilità sociale, e per i ricchi stessi, che si trovano a vivere in un contesto sociale conflittuale.

Because of processes of globalisation, internationali-sation, and neo-liberal world policy Flanders (Belgium) is facing new problems concerning inequality of opportunities in education. This might raise sever¬al questions. In this paper three questions are an¬swered: 1) is there equality of opportunity in the Flemish education system, 2) what is the policy of the Flemish government in relation to inequality of opportunities in education and which answers could be offered to remedy for inequality of opportunities in higher education, and 3) does the academisation of college education contribute to more equality of opportunities in higher education. Besides delivering a short description of the inequality of opportunity in education, the author criticised some of the limita-tions of the current research. The second part of the paper is mainly interested in the description of research about new actions in the USA for the promotion of equality of opportunity in higher education. The third part supports the thesis that the processes of academisation of college education contribute to more equality of opportunity, although the means provided by the government to attain this purpose are not sufficient.

De globalisering van de samenleving heeft aan de problematiek van de kansengelijkheid in het onderwijs een andere dimensie gegeven. Daarenboven gaat dit proces gepaard met een toenemend belang dat in onze samenleving aan het neoliberale gedachtegoed wordt gehecht. Het is duidelijk dat dit zijn sporen zal achterlaten op de ontwikkeling van het beleid voor meer kansengelijkheid. Ik licht deze begrippen eerst kort
toe om me dan toe te spitsen op drie vragen betreffende de kansengelijkheid in Vlaanderen

To handle the fact that unintentional injuries are growing into a global public health problem, injury prevention programmes have been introduced at national and local levels in many countries. 1 Community-based programme development, building interventions into the existing networks in the civic environment and emphasizing broad participation, has long been known as a promising model in public health practice. 2 For example, in Sweden, interventions in injury prevention based on local popular participation and inter-sectoral cooperation between authorities have been in use for more than two decades. The scope of the interventions includes empowerment of the socially weak and continuous tracking of high-risk environments and groups. Guided by participatory action research, 3 the structure of these programmes has been

With the protraction of higher education, delays in marriage and childbearing, and extended financial support from parents, emerging adults (or EAs, ages 18–23) enjoy unprecedented freedoms. What does that mean for their spiritual formation? Smith, a veteran sociologist of religion, and Snell, of the Center for the Study of Religion and Society at Notre Dame, draw on statistical samples and more than 200 in-depth interviews to craft a compelling portrait of college-age Americans. This generation, steeped in religious pluralism, gets high marks for inclusivity and diversity awareness but has troubling consumerist tendencies, consistently prioritizing material wealth and devaluing altruism. Not surprisingly, EAs are less religious than older adults and than they themselves were as teenagers—which comes home especially poignantly in a chapter of follow-up profiles on some of the interview subjects from Smith's 2005 book on teen spirituality, Soul Searching. Surprisingly, however, EAs are not significantly less religious than emerging adults of prior generations. Although the book is heavy on survey data, tables and sociological typology, it's well-organized and seasoned with enough memorable interviews that lay readers will value it as much as specialists. (Publishers Weekly)

INTRODUCTION Adolescent pregnancy remains a difficult problem in developing countries, including Indonesia. Pregnancy at an early age is a risk factor for maternal and infant mortality. A recent report indicates that adolescent pregnancy is even higher in rural areas. Therefore, this study aims to identify factors associated with adolescent pregnancy in rural Indonesia and formulate intervention actions to reduce the teenage pregnancy rate. METHODS Participatory action research (PAR) was conducted in the rural area of Mesuji District, Lampung Province, Indonesia. Six meetings, including four focus group discussions (FGDs), were held. The FGDs were audio-recorded and transcribed for inductive analysis. Themes emergent from the data were discussed with the local collaborators to achieve agreement. RESULTS Five factors were identified as determinants of adolescent pregnancy. They were low uptake of reproductive health services, low educational attainment, juvenile delinquency, poverty,...

Most of the parents in many cultures are reluctant to discuss with their adolescent children about sexual and reproductive health information leading to increased incidence of sexually transmitted infections, adolescent pregnancy, unsafe abortion and child marriages. This study was carried out to explore the parents' perception of sexual education towards their adolescent children from February to May 2018. As a qualitative study, ten fathers and ten mothers from Twantay Township were selected according to the attitude scores which were interviewed to 216 parents in quantitative survey for attitude question and in-depth interview was done by using IDI guideline. According to the finding results, it was noticed that most of the parents agreed to include sex education in the school curriculum and teach the students according to their age. And it was also revealed that most common barriers for parents on giving sexual health education were gender difference and age of children. The respondents in this study want to suggest that other parents should give sex education with examples, talking with interactive conversations, talking gently and frankly to their adolescents. Programs for giving sexual and reproductive health information to the parents should be initiated and the sexual education topics in the school curriculum should be taught effectively.

Mindful of the withering of high-stakes accountability and disappointing data from pay for performance evaluations in the US, we ask why management by extrinsic incentives and organizational goal setting may have been far less powerful than designers of accountability and extrinsic incentive systems had expected. We explore how system-generated motives (e.g., attaining specific organizational goals, preventing sanctions, or garnering rewards) stack up against autonomously generated, intrinsic, or service motives.? We found through both quantitative and qualitative data that for teachers in the charter schools a constellation of public service motives predominated: diffuse pro-social commitments, ideologies of fairness and equity, a belief in the moral deservingness of deprived student populations in opposition to societal neglect, and identification with one's work as a personal calling. By comparison, monetary rewards were embraced as already deserved. Neither rewards, nor acco...

What causes stark differences in living standards between subnational units? What can countries do to lessen such variations? This article argues that there is an aspect of national policy frameworks that impacts subnational provision of social services: the sensitivity of policy to the particularities of place. Place-sensitive policies make adaptations to the way social services are organized and provided across a country so that they are better equipped to deal with the different characteristics of places and better support their wellbeing. When policies are place-sensitive, subnational provision is facilitated in poor, rural, and marginal locations of a country. In contrast, place-blind policies employ a one-size-fits-all approach that excludes people in vulnerable areas and aggravates inequalities in social service provision and social outcomes.  By studying the Colombian case, this article demonstrates that a key place-blind feature of its healthcare model disproportionately affects small localities.

Neoliberalism is a theory of political economic practices that claims that human well-being can be best advanced by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterized by strong private property rights, free markets and free trade . It was first implemented in Chile in the seventies, when the United States of America supported and plotted the coup d'état of Pinochet to fire the socialist president Allende. Since its beginnings it has been changing the relation between the state and the society and, because of globalization, it is becoming the homogeneous economic theory in the world.

One potential pathway towards sustainability involves reducing the level of anthropogenic carbon emissions per unit of human well-being, also known as the carbon intensity of human well-being (CIWB). I estimate longitudinal models, which indicate that for OECD and non-OECD nations, income inequality began increasing CIWB in the 1990s, and the effect of inequality on CIWB continued to increase in magnitude through time. This suggests that reducing inequality in nations throughout the world could enhance both climate change mitigation efforts and human quality of life.

Numerous Czech studies have been conducted on how the education system reproduces inequalities. While most of them have dealt with the reproduction of class inequalities, relatively few have focused on the reproduction of gender inequalities. In this article, the authors apply a conceptual understanding of the category of gender to research on education, an approach that avoids both universalising the category of woman, as well as the opposite extreme of individualisation. We claim that female students, even though they differ among themselves in various social and personal ways, are serialised as women by institutions in the education system. They are expected to perform differently, with different motivations, their performance is valued differently and they are expected to follow different professions than male students. The paper focuses in detail on the gendered nature of educational institutions, both in terms of the gender segregation of fi elds and levels of study, as well as in terms of the importance of the interaction that occurs during the processes of teaching and ascribing value and signifi cance to the performance of male and female students. The authors argue that education, generally expected to function as a social ladder and a route to better-paid jobs in the labour market, serves men and women in segregated ways.