School Architecture

This article describes the results of a study on user behavior in relation to environmental comfort conditions. A case study was conducted in school buildings in the region of the city of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. The methodology adopted was based on field observations of technical aspects of the school environment and of types of user behavior (interventions) that introduced changes in the classroom space. Questionnaires were applied to users. A follow-up study evaluated user perception of possible interventions. User knowledge on environmental comfort concepts was also assessed. The results of the case study showed few interventions by users in favor of their own comfort. Low participation results may, in part, be attributed to the context, where users, schoolchildren, are subject to discipline codes with restricted spontaneous behavior in favor of individual comfort. Environmental awareness should therefore be stimulated by teaching concepts of environmental comfort in primary and secondary schools.

Students with EBD place a tremendous amount of stress on educators to meet their unique needs and simultaneously maintain a safe and orderly school environment that is conducive to learning. School administrators and staff are constantly searching for strategies and options to address the challenges these students present (Walker et al., 2004). Students with EBD are often the first to be considered by school administrators for placement in costly restrictive settings as a way of dealing with their problems and restoring order to the general education setting. This article will help educators understand the importance of structuring educational settings so that they best support evidence based interventions that serve the needs of students with EBD and provide a safe learning environment for all involved.

Die Schulbank des 19. Jahrhunderts – als in Reihen aufgestellte und fix mit dem Pult verbundene Sitzgelegenheit – wurde als technischer Apparat gesehen, um den Körper zu formen, und über den Körper auch den Geist. Die Schulbank ist damit der Kern, der Kristallisationspunkt einer disziplinierenden Schularchitektur.

On The Very Edge brings together fourteen empirical and comparative essays about the production, perception, and reception of modernity and modernism in the visual arts, architecture, and literature of interwar Serbia (1918–1941). The contributions highlight some idiosyncratic features of modernist processes in this complex period in Serbian arts and society, which emerged ‘on the very edge’ between territorial and cultural, new and old, modern and traditional identities. With an open methodological framework this book  reveals a vibrant and intertwined artistic scene, which, albeit prematurely, announced interests in pluralism and globalism. On The Very Edge addresses issues of artistic identities and cultural geographies and aims to enrich contextualized studies of modernism and its variants in the Balkans and Europe, while simultaneously re-mapping and adjusting the prevailing historical canon.

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Booklet published at the occasion of an exhibition at bak (basis voor actuele kunst) in Utrecht, December 3, 2016 to February 5, 2017, conceptualized by Tom Holert. Texts by Tom Holert and Maria Hlavajova, editing by Hidde van Greuningen. Dutch/English

For sustainable building design, computational tools, mostly in the form of simulations, are employed to determine loads and to predict systems performance typically in terms of energy use. Currently, sustainability, in the building domain, is judged by a rating system. Design choices are validated, by measuring against one. The objective of the framework is to provide a general approach to processing the informational needs of any rating system, by identifying, categorizing and organizing relevant data requirements. Aspects of sustainability that designers deal with intuitively will have a structured guideline and gauge as one selects a rating system of choice.

This paper is an exploration of, and an attempt to broadly define some basic architectural elements necessary for the "domestication" of all-day, educational care settings.  It will combine review of literature and reflection in three areas: the psychological dynamics of architectural space, the way young children experience space, and the architectural programmatics of institutional space.

School architecture is often taken for granted both in use (where it is naturalized) and in writing on education policy (tending to feature simply as policy setting.) Built policy instead points up the active and ongoing role of the material environment in shaping education. From financing and procurement to the design of individual classrooms, the paper works across architecture, sociology and policy studies to clarify the relationship between different dimensions of physical and social space and so provide a useful theoretical ground for future work. What is special about school-building and architecture that enables them to do policy? How are they used to do it? By whom? From city planners to students, a range of actors use different space-organizing resources to attempt the instantiation of (and challenges to) policy in built form. These processes are explored first theoretically, then empirically through a new Academy school in England. The paper deepens understanding of what policy is, emphasizing its intimate if taken for granted spatial characteristics, its ongoing-ness in built form and its travel by means of circulating images of buildings and spaces.

Beside the successful prefabricated Hertfordshire schools in Great Britain during the mid-twentieth century, the archi-tects that were associated with the New Brutalism were reclaiming the role of architecture as a mediator in the relationship of the child within the environment and the community in which he lives. Their understanding of architecture as a new urban landscape built, in which everyday living unfolds, led them to a design approach that focuses fundamentally on the generation of architectural form derived from the specific functional, playful and mental necessities of those who use it. Its particular way of materialising and its specific manner of implementation in a given location are considered as imperative actions, which must arise ad hoc in every case, and will determine the running of educational complexes as real integrated living spaces.

This article analyzes the US Bureau of Indian Affairs model Indian school exhibit at the Chicago World’s Columbian Exposition as an artifact of spatial and social relations. It uses architectural drawings to examine how assimilationist ideals were spatialized and displayed in a functioning industrial school that structured education, race, and morality. At the same time, it considers the decorations of indigenous material culture and the resistances and ambivalences of the children who performed there. By considering the school as a stage for many forms of agency this article shifts the discourse from the exhibit’s planners to those who lived it.

Much of the writing on Post Occupancy Evaluation (hereafter POE) is politically and scientifically naïve: it presents POE as a neutral and passive technical means of faithfully recording particular aspects of the built environment-in-use. As such it fails to recognise how practices of measurement and evaluation make a difference to the environments in which they are used. The purpose of this chapter is to illustrate the significance of politics in the evaluation of school buildings as they are inhabited and used – what is often called Post Occupancy Evaluation (hereafter POE). It therefore provides a critical exploration of POE and particularly its assumptions regarding the production of knowledge. The paper argues that the particular contexts, people, aims and values involved in evaluative tools and exercises matter more than is generally recognised. It shows how these matter and the implications for researching schools. I make explicit some of the assumptions underlying the basis of values and measures which then helps to see how they are inevitably politically charged. This, in turn, helps to appreciate other, previously obscured issues. For example, I question whether the core purpose of POE noted by some commentators – that of making workplaces more efficient – is relevant to schools as social rather than profit-maximising institutions.

The entrance ways of most schools display “No Skateboarding” signs to deter youth from using school staircases and walkways as playgrounds for their wheeled devices, but are schools striking the right balance between banning skateboards and encouraging youth activity? This paper juxtaposes contemporary architectural philosophy and injury incidence data to paint a picture of a hidden curriculum deep within the subconscious of our litigious education systems. At heart: the phenomenological experience of youth skateboarders at school.

In his work "24/7: Late Capitalism and the ends of sleep," Johnatan Crary argues that sleep constitutes the ultimate challenge to capitalism, but could it also be considered an obstacle to design?
(Exercise paper, Architectural History and Theory Seminar 2, McGill University, Prof. David Theodore, Fall 2018)

Good lighting conditions significantly affect students, both in health and personal achievements. This paper investigates the relation between the students’ performance and the lighting levels in Primary Schools in UK. The research aims to explore the architectural values that contribute to a quality learning environment, based on the findings of studies in two recent primary school buildings in UK.

The development of ferrocement in Brazil cannot be dissociated from the works of the architect João Filgueiras Lima, popularly known as Lelé (1932–2014). Renamed as argamassa armada by a group of engineers from São Carlos in the 1960s—to make a clear distinction from Nervi's ferrocemento – the construction material was used in an innovative way in the 1980s in cities like Rio de Janeiro, Brasília and Salvador. This paper analyses Lelé's use of argamassa armada and the way in which he assigned a social role to slender and lightweight components. In this context, transient prefabricated schools and some of their key components allow us to discern the motivations behind the architect's innovations, which matter much more than the material's mechanical properties.

This report forms part of the work commissioned by the design team to inform the design for the new Whyalla Secondary School. This report aims to provide deeper understandings of the Indigenous design issues for the design team, including preliminary comments to inform the design process which are not exhaustive. This report is not intended to replace direct consultation or discussion on various aspects of the design.

Organized education is one of the most important pillars of modern day society, and as such, becomes a powerful mass-influence weapon, when controlled by political interests. Are the ideologies behind post-war education reforms in Western and Eastern European states similar in aspirations? Do these ideologies support a brighter future, and if so, what is their envisaged ideal? How do these new systems function, and which point of view on historical facts do they mean to teach? By which principles are school buildings conceived?
The subject of this study will consist of an in-depth analysis of educational facilities’ architectural development in two countries pertaining to the opposite political poles in post-war Europe: on one side, the Constitutional Monarchy of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and on the other, the Socialist Republic of Romania. The evolution of educational facilities is reflective of the cultural development of the society which generated them, but also mirror other intricate economic and political aspects. This is one of the reasons the comparison between the two countries would be most relevant to underline the resemblances and differences regarding social goals. Furthermore, the architecture of educational environments facilitates social interactions and model the relationships between individuals and the authorities, generates a work environment which mimics the adult world and conveys the message of what society aspires to become. This message is even more valuable when nations are confronted with armed conflicts and economic crises, as it contributes to maintaining a stable society and instills moral and cultural values.
This is the reason why, in the case of Great Britain, the period 1944-1975 seems to be most relevant for the post-war school design analysis, while in the case of Romania, the period 1947-1989, coinciding with the Communist reign, would offer a clearer image of educational facilities’ evolution. This difference in time-frame is due to internal political turmoil, economic challenges and rise and fall of dominating political and ideologies.
The chosen time-frame for this study also includes numerous other aspects, which shaped school buildings at both an architectural and engineering level. The post-war lack of workforces, the increase in population numbers, the general need for reconstruction and expansion, political ideologies, were all factors which played a part in the development of construction strategies. To what extent and towards which result they have managed to do so, will be revealed by the detailed study and comparison of the architectural developments in the two chosen countries.

A proposed 22,000 square foot Children's Center was designed for the child care needs of 240 children at Northern Michigan University.  The proposed Center was designed to achieve a developmentally optimal level of complexity and challenge, and to empower children and their caregivers to allow them freedom of movement and access, freedom of choice, freedom to plan and initiate, and the opportunity for privacy equivalent to a high quality home situation.  The design of the building and the major design concepts from Recommendations for Child Care Centers that generated the building are are discussed in this paper.  Particular attention is given to "campus-plan concept for very large centers," "modified open plan," and "home bases" surrounded by "resource-rich activity pockets."

It has been shown that the pioneerism of the Modern Movement in the Lusophone Africa lies in how the modern ideology, inspired by the Brazilian experience, was locally interpreted. From this viewpoint the excellence of this heritage lies, in part, in its responsiveness to the environment in which it operates, through a design with climate based on concerns today associated with the concept of environmental sustainability, rooted in the awareness of the functional needs and the available resources.
With the main objective to contribute to the acquisition and consolidation of knowledge of the modern architecture in Lusophone Africa (1943-1974) interpreted in the light of these assumptions, the object of study of this dissertation is a specific architectural scholar program, widely developed and built in Mozambique at this period of the history (1955-1975). Initially led by architect Fernando Mesquita, in the context of the Public Works Services of the Province of Mozambique, it was reconfigured and evolved through various levels of education, ranging from primary to high schools. Extensively built until the years of the former Portuguese colonies independence in 1975, in urban and rural territory, and gathering later contributions from other authors, it still assumes nowadays an extremely significant expression in the infrastructure of Mozambique territory.
Based on the systematic analysis of case studies, on which carries out the analysis and the interpretation of the systems and technologies designed to respond to specific levels of comfort for the tropical climate, along with the analysis of the organization of the built environment and the functional typology, this dissertation aims to contribute to the characterization of this architectural program from the point of view of formal, technological and ideological assumptions of the Modern Movement and its responsiveness to the climatic context in which it operates.

L'evoluzione dell'architettura degli edifici scolastici in relazione alle nuove metodologie pedagogiche.
La scuola dell’infanzia di oggi si presenta come un complesso organismo architettonico, le cui forme e ambienti hanno un grande
potenziale: facilitare l’apprendimento, nonché stimolare la creatività e la sensibilità dei bambini. La sua progettazione richiede, quindi,
un approfondimento sui moderni metodi didattici, per poter raggiungere il giusto equilibrio tra architettura e pedagogia.
L'analisi storico-formale degli edifici scolastici consente di comprendere come le caratteristiche formali siano state dirette rappresentazioni della cultura e della pedagogia dell’epoca di riferimento, sottolineando un vigoroso rapporto tra “forma” della scuola e metodo didattico.

Services that architects provide are no longer constrained to offering inspiring design solutions to client needs and whims; their services are beginning to spread across domains to ensure that proposed designs are also 'green' and/or 'sustainable'. Indeed, design and delivery of sustainable buildings is gradually gathering momentum, manifest in the way that building performance and functionality are being viewed within an overall ecological context. The ongoing transformation from the traditional to a sustainable building design process is no longer a question of whether to build but rather how (Kibert 2005). Of the many tools available to aid sustainable design, building rating systems offer guidelines and means for comparing and benchmarking buildings performance (Fowler and Rauch 2006). The nature of sustainable building rating systems is such that they are evolving—in this respect this paper describes research that engages this paradigm through the deployment of...

Teaching Green Buildings (TGBs) are designed to engage building users with the sustainable features of the building and offer unique opportunities to deliver environmental education (EE) through multiple channels. This study examines three case study TGBs across the United States. We present results from a mixed-methods study involving a youth survey (n = 311), youth Photovoice project (n = 29), and focus groups and interviews with adult key informants. We sought to understand how school facility design, school culture, curriculum, and teachers as role models provide multiple channels for EE, with a particular interest in the physical built environment of these three unique schools. Basic green building knowledge and environmentally responsible behaviors were detected at all three schools. We found, however, that two of the case study schools, despite the access to TGBs, were not communicating sustainability through diverse channels, and the EE outcomes for students were disjointed and tepid. The third and most established TGB offered sustainability messaging through numerous channels and the result for students was a more holistic and connected understanding of green buildings within the larger ecological context.

The paper examines the hypothesis, that school buildings construct the future citizens of the nation-state. We specifically ask, how such national constructions play out in multilingual nation-states. With a special focus on the development of school architecture in a variety of regions including as major cases Luxembourg and Switzerland, the paper analyses school buildings as the spaces where the act of physically going to school takes place. As a dominant of the local scenery, schools were also actively involved in the presentation of spaces, displaying concepts of the nation or its sub-units. In Switzerland, it reveals the strong importance of the cantons and communities; in Luxembourg it showed the significant role of the capital as well as the local commune and demographical policies of the country: While national coherence was emphasized and also symbolically transported for instance through uniform school buildings or model school types, we found also that the school buildings were of overall importance for the profile finding of regions and communes and became powerful agents of societal planning in anchoring citizens to specific regions and shaping the core of the village. In both cases, the article demonstrates the significant contribution of school buildings to the manifold ways of unifying citizens and differentiating them according to societal needs.

Montebelluna è una cittadina veneta, a pochi chilometri da Treviso, contraddistinta da un sistema di canali artificiali che sin dai tempi antichi ne assicura l’approvvigionamento idrico. Questa rete preleva l’acqua dal vicino Piave, a nord della città, per servire nuclei abitati e poderi. Il canale Brentella è uno dei corsi d’acqua che lambisce l’edificato sud della città. Lungo le sue sponde, che molti vorrebbero fossero trasformate in un parco fluviale, nel 2015 si inaugura il Liceo Primo Levi.
A firmare il progetto è l’architetto Mauro Galantino, a seguito di gara con offerta tecnico-economica.
Dal punto di vista planimetrico la scuola è il risultato della giustapposizione di tre volumi, la cui composizione definisce una pianta a pettine.

The Primo Levi high school in Montebelluna, situated along the banks of the Brentella canal, was inaugurated in 2015. The project was designed by the architect Mauro Galantino.
The plan of the school is a juxtaposition of three volumes whose composition defines a comb-like plan.

Београд је током треће деценије XX века био суочен са озбиљним недостатком основних школа. Проблем је кулминирао 1928. године, када је на иницијативу грађана општина града Београда пројектовала две и помогла изградњу треће школе у насељима која су тада чинила периферију града. Осим што су значајне као школе које су подигнуте после вишегодишње паузе, oсновне школе на Булбулдеру, Вождовцу и Душановцу представљале су својеврсну прекретницу у развоју архитектуре школских зграда. Осим што су биле функционалне и хигијенски задовољавајуће грађевине, три школе приказане у овом раду најавиле су и даљи развој у изградњи школа, тако иницирајући коначно доношење Развојног плана Општине града Београда. Истраживање овог до сада недовољно истраженог поља градитељских остварења омогућило је и да се детаљније расветли улога историографији готово непознатих општинских архитеката Жарка Крстића и Десанке Манојловић, али и појава, до сада мало познатог аутора, грађевинског инжењера Радослава Тодоровића.

During the 1930s, Belgrade was facing a serious deficiency of primary schools. The problem culminated in 1928 when, at the initiative of its citizens, the Municipality of Belgrade designed two and helped the construction of a third school, in settlements at the time being the city outskirts. Along with their significance as schools that were built after a long standstill, the primary schools in Bulbulder, Voždovac and Dušanovac represented a turning point in the development of school building architecture. In addition to their functionality and good hygiene standards, the three schools presented in this paper also announced the further advancement in school construction, initiating the final adoption of the Belgrade Municipality development plan. The research of this, so far insufficiently explored, field of construction has made it possible to shed the light and present more details about the role of architects Žarko Krstić and Desanka Manojlović, nearly unknown to the historiography, as well as the work of a little-known author, construction engineer Radoslav Todorović.

Presentamos una reciente investigación sobre la arquitectura escolar en España. Tras una revisión histórica y académica, entrevistamos a catorce informantes expertos (cuatro inspectores, cuatro arquitectos, tres responsables de la Administración y tres directores de escuela/instituto públicos) para saber sus percepciones sobre cómo se hacen las escuelas y qué papel juega la pedagogía antes de que se construyan. Los entrevistados resaltaron que en demasiadas ocasiones las exigencias políticas y las limitaciones económicas y temporales tienen más peso que los requerimientos de los usuarios. Además, sugirieron que su criterio debería tenerse en cuenta. Consecuentemente, proponemos la creación de una junta permanente de expertos asesores en materia de arquitectura escolar para con la Administración, que podría mejorar el diseño y construcción flexibles de escuelas e institutos en beneficio de todos.

In the scope of the Kemalist ideological program during the 1920-30s, significant reforms in education were achieved. The transformation of education from the Ottoman system was especially evident in the architecture of the new school buildings. School buildings serving the emerging educational system started to be built throughout the country, conducing the youth to associate with a new architecture formed by modernist ideals. In the early period following the foundation of the Republic, the architectural style preferred for school buildings was the nationalist style, whereas starting from the 1930s modernist approach took over. The modernist facades were plain, without ornamentation, and reflected the function of the building. The interiors were also formed according to the demands of the function. The classrooms were planned in rectangular forms, enabling all pupils to have a clear sight of the blackboard. These buildings were masonry structures with concrete floors/ceilings. In later years reinforced concrete started to be used as a building material. Examples of modernist schools were built primarily in the new capital of the Republic and then spread all around the nation. These buildings, which are among the principal architectural production of the early Republican era, are today regarded as cultural heritage today, witnessing the taste, the spatial preferences, building technology, and materials of their times and carrying immense memory value. There is currently an increasing academic interest in these buildings. Some are represented in the list of Turkish modernist heritage prepared by DOCOMOMO Turkey and others are listed as cultural property. However, in recent years, modernist school buildings have been threatened by consolidation works, conducted due to current building regulations against earthquakes. These interventions cause them to lose their authentic features and modernist characteristics. The buildings are not well-protected due to the reasons like negligence and inappropriate usage. There is an urgent need to draw the attention of the public to the values of these buildings. Well-qualified examples of school buildings ought to be documented and introduced as part of the modernist architectural heritage of Turkey. The aim of the study is to investigate the values and conservation issues of modernist school buildings in Turkey. As an example for these schools, this paper also aims to introduce and highlight the architecture and the heritage values of İstiklal Primary School, as a modern heritage from the city of Bursa. It attempts to identify its existing conservation issues and make proposals for their solution. The study begins with a literature review related to early republican architecture. After giving a brief overview of school buildings from Turkey as part of the modern heritage, it then focuses on İstiklal Primary School from Bursa. The school is studied in detail in the scope of this paper with plans, old photos, and documents from archives. Short interviews with teachers are conducted to understand the contemporary values and problems caused by today's use. In the light of these findings, the architectural features and conservation state of the school are determined. İstiklal Primary School was designed by Nedim Karakurd in 1932 (opened in 1934). It stands out as a model for modernist educational buildings in Bursa. Located in the Osmangazi district, the school's plot was tagged as an educational area in 1940 Prost and 1960s Piccinato plans for Bursa. Its cubic architecture is a unique witness of the 1930's architectural taste in the city. Two photo albums, dating to 1934 and 2002 from the archives of the school highlighted its history and helped to enhance the existing information. The school still serves as a state primary school today. Although an extension was built on the same courtyard in 2001, the modernist impact of the original design of the main building is still visible. Within the scope of this study, the authors applied for the listing of the building to the concerned authority and thus, the school was listed in December 2019. However, legal protection is not enough. There have been misfortunate demolitions of listed modernist heritage in the city, such as Demirtaşpaşa Vocational High School, due to their so-called structural weaknesses. In order to overcome the obstacles and lack of interest in the society against the protection of modernist heritage, there should be studies carried on to raise awareness on these buildings. The present study is considered to be important because it highlights the Istiklal Primary School which needs to be preserved in its integrity while being rehabilitated for future generations. With the condition that its cultural significance is treated with care, it has the potential to be included on a future modernist heritage route planned for Bursa city.

Nas primeiras décadas do século XX, observa-se uma cultura fotográfica adentrando o cotidiano escolar brasileiro. No Rio Grande do Sul, e em sua capital, Porto Alegre, é principalmente o poder público que utiliza a fotografia com a finalidade de documentação e divulgação das obras realizadas. Entre essas imagens destacam-se as fotografias das edificações escolares. A edificação escolar tornava visível a educação na cidade, ao passo que sua imagem fotográfica criava representações de uma sociedade civilizada, moderna e científica, sintetizada na imagem da escola-monumento.

Les Anglais ont colonisé de vastes territoires à l’ouest et au sud du continent africain, notamment le Nigeria et la Côte-de-l’Or (actuel Ghana) en Afrique occidentale, l’Afrique du Sud et la Rhodésie (d’où sont issus le Zimbabwe et la Zambie) en Afrique australe. Bien que ces deux régions soient très éloignées l’une de l’autre, l’histoire et l’évolution de leurs systèmes éducatifs respectifs présentent des ressemblances frappantes depuis le temps des missions, à la fin du XIXe siècle, jusqu’au milieu des années 1950, époque où, pour des raisons essentiellement politiques, elles ont adopté des voies radicalement différentes1. Dans les pays de l’Afrique occidentale britannique, il s’agissait alors de répondre à la demande croissante d’indépendance des autochtones les plus instruits. Le gouvernement colonial dut s’engager à offrir aux citoyens de ces contrées des chances de progresser et de se développer grâce à un meilleur accès à l’éducation. Il s’ensuivit des campagnes de construction de nouvelles écoles et une modification des programmes scolaires qui devaient désormais se conformer aux aspirations élevées des nouvelles élites indigènes ; jusqu’alors, ces programmes encourageaient seulement l’enseignement des trois matières fondamentales (lecture, écriture et arithmétique) afin de répondre aux besoins des missionnaires puis des administrateurs coloniaux en personnel compétent pour les emplois de bureau subalternes, les postes de coursiers de tribunaux et autres fonctions de l’administration coloniale. Cette nouvelle politique conduisit à la construction de collèges universitaires, tels que Fourah Bay en Sierra Leone, le Yaba College of Technology au Nigeria et l’université du Ghana à Legon.
2 Dans le cas de l’Afrique du Sud, d’anciens collèges des missions, comme ceux de Lovedale et Tigerkloof, furent élevés au rang d’établissements d’enseignement supérieur et reçurent des subventions gouvernementales jusqu’à ce que le régime de l’apartheid, mis en place en 1948, mette fin au financement public des établissements missionnaires.

With this paper we intend to reflect on the architecture school as an organism, more than as an institution, in search for a singular identity, within a dialogical mission between educational and political goals.
Rescuing Saskia Sassen’s “The Global City” (1991), it also contemplates some features, which enhance the categorization of a school of architecture as a “global school”, while working as a hypertextual organization and a multi-focal hub.
We also reflect on the global and ubiquitous place of action, in a time when most of the design studios develop their educational exercises elsewhere, stimulating the contact of the students with a foreign place, in search for a surprising effect and critical training when experiencing an unfamiliar social, urban and cultural context.
To assess that global condition, contrarily, we will consider the school as a local organism, acting directly within its circumscribed context and interacting with it, through a more close and compromised outlook, preserving a parochial approach.

La Escuela-Jardín Guadalaviar, emblemática obra del joven Fernando M. García-Ordóñez, es hoy una arquitectura de referencia –uno los nueve proyectos de la Comunidad Valenciana incluidos en la selección ibérica del Docomomo–. Su irrupción en el lánguido panorama arquitectónico de los 50, marcó un punto de ruptura con la tradición constructiva local, permitiendo una apertura a la sinceridad formal, la fluidez espacial y el bioclimatismo. Tras una difícil aceptación inicial, el impacto positivo del proyecto se tradujo en su difusión internacional –L’architecture d’aujourd d’hui; The Architect & Building News, etc.– y en la consolidación de la modernidad en Valencia.
El presente artículo reflexiona sobre la pervivencia hasta nuestros días del imaginario arquitectónico de Guadalaviar, a pesar de la desaparición de muchos de sus elementos originales. Además, se analiza la Escuela-Jardín contando con nuevas fuentes primarias: las series fotográficas del seguimiento de la construcción y las memorias profesionales del arquitecto. Junto con la documentación original, se dispone así del marco hermenéutico más completo reunido hasta el momento. Y es que, precisamente a través del constructo originado por la fotografía y su aceptación social, la Escuela-Jardín ha desaparecido y, a la vez, sobrevivido a sí misma.


The Guadalaviar Garden School, the emblematic work of the young Fernando M. García-Ordóñez, is today an architectural point of reference –one of the nine buildings from the Autonomous Community of Valencia to be included as part of the Iberian chapter of Docomomo. Bursting onto the languishing local scene of the 1950’s, it gave rise to formal sincerity, special fluidity and bioclimatism in architecture. Following a somewhat lukewarm initial reception, the positive impact of the design could be seen by the international dissemination through publications –L’architecture d’aujourd d’hui; The Architect & Building News, etc.– and in the consolidation of modernism in Valencia.
The paper analyses the Garden School using primary unparalleled sources: the series of photographs used to document the construction and the professional memoirs of the architect. Together with the original documents, we now have at our disposal the most comprehensive interpretive framework. Lastly, consideration should be given to the cultural role of Guadalaviar, due to the continued existence of its imagery and despite the disappearance of many of the original architectural elements. And it is precisely through this photographic-based construct that the Guadalaviar Garden School has disappeared but at the same time has managed to survive its own demise.

L’espace bâti et aménagé est enrichi par des dimensions psychologique, sociale et pédagogique, qui complètent sa qualité matérielle. Le rapport de l’enfant à l’espace, situé au centre de la dimension pédagogique de l’espace, s’avère très important dans une classe multiculturelle, parce qu’il favorise l’ouverture du processus éducatif vers la diversité culturelle. Des recherches et des applications pilotes, entreprises depuis 1996 à l’Université Aristote de Thessalonique pour reformer ce rapport au sein de l’école maternelle traditionnelle grecque, ont abouti à la création d’une méthode de réaménagement de l’espace scolaire conçue d’après des critères pédagogiques, psychosociologiques et architecturaux. L’objectif principal de la méthode est le remodelage du rapport de l’enfant à l’espace afin de l’adapter aux approches coopératives d’enseignement, ainsi qu’aux particularités d’un environnement éducatif multiculturel. Cet article présente les fondements théoriques et les règles d’application de la méthode, ainsi que son évaluation au travers des réalisations pilotes dans 69 écoles en Grèce et à Chypre.

Schools tell stories. The physical plants, including conditions, plans, locations, and embellishments provide clues to the histories of these neglected raconteurs (Butchart, 1986). Specifically, the architectural characteristics of older schools built during the Progressive Era of American education (1890s-1920s approximately), a time when the proliferation of urban schools was characterized by efficient industrial models meant to develop rationalized opportunities for growth and prosperity (Tyack, 1974), provide contextual clues to the way America once valued education and invested in the nation's future. The materials, designs, and aesthetic flourishes found in and on these schools can be examined and unpacked for their purposes, subtle messages, and audiences. This type of analysis is of great importance as many of these schools are still in use today and have served changing communities for generations. As student populations and educational goals have shifted over the decades since the Progressive Era, it is imperative that researchers deconstruct the intended and unintended messages conveyed by the inanimate artifacts that make up modern schooling environments. My interest in the ideological imposition of educational spaces emerges from the dichotomy of my personal experiences within schools. As a student I experienced safe and welcoming schools that were maintained, revered, and preserved as community icons for generations. As a teacher, I encountered schools that were dangerous, forlorn, and compromised. The inconsistency between the two experiences made me consider the roles the educational spaces themselves played in enculturating students about the purpose and value of school as well as their place inside and outside of it. This Voice From the Field unpacks these themes within the context of an urban school where I spent significant time as both a teacher and a researcher. As is common with practitioner research, the questions I seek to answer developed from my practice in the school and ultimately my findings will be applied to the context where the inquiry emerged (Ravitch, 2014). This piece stands as a commentary on conceptualizing schools as artifacts and the need for greater examination of educational iconography. In addition, it is a call to action for those engaged in similar spaces to confront the physical markers of oppression.

Il a fallu 40 ans pour que l'école des métiers de Lausanne soit édifiée: chronique d'une gestation très lente, durant laquelle les apprentis sont assimilés à des travailleurs et l'architecture de leur école, par conséquent, doit se rapprocher de cette des usines qu'ils occuperont une fois adulte.

Au XIXe siècle, les lycées éprouvent à l’égard des villes qui les abritent des sentiments ambivalents, entre attraction et rejet. En contrepartie des multiples ressources qu’elles procurent, les villes occasionnent en effet des nuisances qui menacent sans cesse la santé, la sécurité et la moralité des élèves ainsi que la bonne marche de leurs études. Pendant longtemps, les établissements peinent à faire entendre leurs revendications et doivent donc s’adapter seuls au contexte urbain. Mais, peu à peu, ces rapports conflictuels s’apaisent : à la fin du siècle, après que le gouvernement a échoué dans sa tentative de transporter à la campagne les établissements d’internes, la ville est devenue un véritable partenaire avec lequel les lycées n’hésitent plus à multiplier les échanges. Par son exemplarité, le cas des lycées parisiens illustre cette lente évolution.

In the 19th century, lycées experienced ambivalent feelings towards the cities that harboured them, ranging from attraction to rejection. Cities offered many ressources to schools, on the other hand they caused threatening damage to the health, safety and moral standards of the pupils, as well as to the course of their studies. For a long time, schools struggled to put forward their claims and had therefore to adapt alone to the urban context. However, these conflictual relationships gradually died down. Towards the end of the century, after the government’s failure to set up boarding schools outside the cities, lycées and cities became real partners with an increasing number of contacts between the two. Because of its exemplary nature, the case of the lycées in Paris illustrates this slow evolution.

En el Archivo Histórico de la Universidad de las Islas Baleares (AHUIB) se conservan los fondos de las antiguas Escuelas Normales de Baleares. En una de estas series documentales, se encuentra un acervo que contiene las memorias que entregaban los alumnos de magisterio una vez habían realizado las pertinentes prácticas pedagógicas – las cuales eran requisito indispensable para la obtención del título de maestro de primera enseñanza –. El conjunto documental que se ha conservado hasta nuestros días, contiene memorias de prácticas realizadas entre 1914 y 1959. No obstante, para la presente comunicación nos centraremos en las que se llevaron a cabo entre 1939 y 1948. En estas memorias, además de encontrar reflejada la labor pedagógica desarrollada por los normalistas, vemos detalladas las principales características de los edificios y espacios que acogieron las escuelas nacionales de Baleares durante los años de postguerra. De hecho, en la mayoría de estos testimonios encontramos referencias sobre como eran estos espacios, relatándose para tal efecto las principales características y elementos que los conformaban (mobiliario, materiales de enseñanza, decoración y simbología, etc.). Por otra parte, destacar que en el presente ejercicio además de detallar como eran los espacios y edificios, también queremos poner en valor la importancia de este tipo de fuentes para la reconstrucción de la historia de la escuela – como son las memorias de prácticas –, ya que para su análisis y interpretación, son esenciales sin lugar a dudas las «voces» de aquellos que fueron partícipes de una determinada realidad educativa.

The pioneering Egyptian architect and teacher Ramses Wissa Wassef (1911–74) is best known for his founding in 1951 of the Ramses Wissa Wassef Art Center in Harraniya, a small village near the Giza Pyramids in Greater Cairo. The center, internationally acclaimed for its tapestries and sculptures, began partly as an art school for young villagers, reflecting Wissa Wassef’s aim of reviving traditional Egyptian architecture and crafts, and his belief in the innate creative power and potential of children.

Less well known are Wissa Wassef’s prolific architectural output and his efforts and influence beyond the confines of the Harraniya center to promote artistic expression among Egyptian youth. This generously illustrated volume is the first comprehensive survey of Wissa Wassef’s architectural works, both extant and non-extant, shedding light on his legacy and significant engagement with vernacular and contemporary Egyptian architecture. Wissa Wassef renounced self-promotion and monetary reward in his work, placing human physical and psychological well-being at the center of his architectural philosophy. An astute observer and modest personality, he saw himself as part of the people and began experimenting with participatory design and people-centered architecture before they became popular.

The Architecture of Ramses Wissa Wassef reveals Wissa Wassef’s profuse architectural oeuvre, which spanned private villas and rural houses, as well as public buildings, such as churches, schools, and museums, highlighting his rich contribution to Egypt’s architectural heritage at a moment when that heritage is at risk of being lost.

De multiples archives documentent les bâtiments publics construits en France au XIXe siècle. Pour illustrer les moyens de procéder en la matière, on s’attache ici à l’exemple des lycées. L’identification des sources requiert d’abord un examen rétrospectif des processus institutionnels (maîtrise d’ouvrage, contrôle des travaux et maîtrise d’œuvre). Dans le cas des lycées, la reconstitution du rôle joué par divers échelons administratifs permet de distinguer six types d’archives distincts : les archives des établissements eux-mêmes, celles des municipalités, des départements, des rectorats et des ministères, enfin les archives personnelles des architectes. Ce n’est que par le recoupement des pièces conservées ici et là (plans, rapports, correspondances, etc.) qu’on peut affiner la connaissance d’un bâtiment public.

Numerous archives document public buildings constructed in France during the 19th century. To illustrate how to proceed in this matter, this article focuses on the example of secondary school buildings. The identification of sources requires first a retrospective study of institutional processes (contracting ownership, monitoring of the works, and general contractorship). In the case of the secondary schools, this reconstruction of the roles played by various administrative levels brings out a distinction between six different types of archives: the archives of the schools themselves, towns’, departments’, education offices’ and ministries’ archives, and finally the architects’ personal archives. The knowledge we have on a specific public building can only be perfected by crosschecking the documents, that are stored here and there (plans, reports, letter exchanges, etc.), with one another.