Parental Stress

PROBLEM:
Parental stress in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) has been reported, however identifying modifiable stress factors and looking for demographic parent factors related to stress has not been well researched.

AIM:
This study aims to identify the most stressful elements for parents in the neonatal intensive care unit.

METHODS:
Parents of babies in an Australian neonatal intensive care unit (N=73) completed both the Parent Stress Scale - Neonatal Intensive Care Unit and a survey of parent and baby demographic and support experience variables (Parent Survey) over an 18-month period.

FINDINGS:
Older parental age, very premature birth and twin birth were significantly associated with a higher Parent Stress Scale - Neonatal Intensive Care Unit score. Having a high score in the Relationship and Parental Role scale was strongly associated with attendance at the parent support group.

CONCLUSION:
These results indicate the variables associated with stress and this knowledge can be used by teams within hospitals to provide better supportive emotional care for parents.

Backgorund: Parents after Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) hospitalization of preterm infant may develop psychopathological symptoms. The aim of the study was to determine how parental stress and psychophysical wellbeing affect posttraumatic symptoms (PTTS) in parents during the first year after NICU discharge. Moreover, this study aimed to explore any gender-specific difference in psychological distress among mothers and fathers. Methods: Prospective study design from September 2018 to September 2019. 20 pairs of parents of preterm infants admitted to a tertiary-level NICU were enrolled. Primary outcome was evaluation of PTTS in parents of preterm infants at one year after NICU discharge through Impact of Event Scale-Revised. Secondary outcomes were: impact of parental stress, psychophysical wellbeing, anxiety and depression respectively through Parental Stressor Scale: NICU, Short Form Health Survey-36(SF-36), Self-rating Anxiety Scale and Self-rating Depression Scale. Results: Mothers experienced higher rates of PTTS than fathers across the first year after NICU discharge (55% vs 20%). Maternal avoidance symptoms were associated with perception of their own infant look. Emotional aspects linked to maternal role predicted 36,8% of their hyperarousal symptoms. Maternal PTTS severity was predicted by their social functioning. Paternal mental health was associated both with maternal and paternal intrusive symptoms.. Maternal stress was associated with paternal avoidance symptoms. Paternal mental health predicted their hyperarousal symptoms (40%) and PTSD severity (52%). Conclusions: Parents who experienced NICU hospitalization of their own infant are at heightened risk to develop psychopathological symptoms. According to our initial hypothesis, investigating parental psychophysical wellbeing, through SF-36, originally provides a valuable support to detect parents at higher risk to develop posttraumatic outcomes across the first year after NICU discharge. In addition, paternal depression deserves to be taken into account since hospitalization as it could impact paternal PTSD development. Finally, these findings provide an initial evidence of gender-related patterns in PTSD development and psychological distress among mothers and fathers across the first year of their infant.

The transition to adulthood and adulthood itself have been identified as times of stress for parents of individuals with
autism spectrum disorder. Longitudinal studies, however, show improvements in the well-being of mothers of adolescents
and young adults with autism spectrum disorder. This article presents a cross-sectional study of 102 Spanish parents
(51 mothers and 51 fathers) of 102 individuals with autism spectrum disorder. The aim was to examine parental wellbeing
(evaluated based on stress, anxiety, depression and psychological well-being) in three groups of parents of adults,
adolescents and young children with autism spectrum disorder. In addition, the relationships between parental well-being and the characteristics of their children, social support, parental age and sense of coherence were analysed. The results showed that although parental stress and psychological well-being levels were similar across the groups, depression and anxiety were lower in parents of adolescents or adults compared with parents of young children. Different factors predicted different measures of parental well-being, but sense of coherence emerged as the main predictive factor for all parental well-being measures. These findings are discussed in relation to parental adaptation over the lifespan and the implications for interventions in autism spectrum disorder families.

Single mothers of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are rarely studied, yet they may experience unique stressors.  Researchers asked 122 single mothers to complete questionnaires concerning respite care, daily hassles/uplifts, depression, and caregiver burden.  More than half (59.8%) accessed respite care, which was provided for one hour per day, often by multiple sources (41%), such as grandparents and community agencies; most were satisfied with this care.  Most mothers (77%) were at risk for clinical depression. While uplifts were negatively correlated with depression, hassles and caregiver burden were positively correlated with depression. Respite care was positively related to daily uplifts, and uplifts mediated the relationship between respite care and depression.  Recommendations for researchers, policymakers, and school personnel are offered.

Autism spectrum disorders are developmental disabilities associated with deficits in communication skills. The distinct behavioral and physical characteristics of ASD can make these individuals more vulnerable to obesity. This study evaluated the prevalence of obesity in a group of ASD children and investigated their dietary habits, and mealtime behavior. Parental perception and awareness associated with overweight and obesity was evaluated. Data was collected from 65 student-respondent dyads in a cross-sectional survey of students enrolled at the Kuwait Center for Autism. Fifty-nine percent respondents reported regular measurement of their children's height and weight. Both healthy (daily breakfast, daily milk intake, frequent consumption of fish and seafood, and consuming fruits and vegetables) and unhealthy (consuming fast foods) dietary habits were reported by majority of respondents. Most respondents (78%) felt that their children ate a varied diet. Mood swings and hyperactivity were commonly reported mealtime behaviors in students. The findings suggest that obesity is common in children and youth with ASD in Kuwait. Monitoring and modification of dietary habits and mealtime behavior should be implemented toward tackling the problem of overweight and obesity in this population.

The present study examines whether parenting stress relates to parenting practices that mothers and fathers adopt, taking into consideration the parental sociodemographic characteristics and the number of children in the household. 245 Greek Cypriot parents (75% mothers and 25% fathers) took part in this survey. The average age of the parents was 38 + 7 years old. We applied the following two instruments: The Parents Αs Social Context Questionnaire (PASCQ), developed initially by Skinner et al., (1986) to assess the six parental dimensions of Warmth, Rejection, Structure, Chaos, Autonomy support, and Coercion, and the Parenting Stress Index (short form) (PSI-SF) to measure stress-levels associated with parenting of children younger than 12 (Abidin, 1995). Findings: Research findings indicated that parenting stress affects and predicts negatively the parenting practices that parents adopt. Furthermore, parenting practices were associated with children's socialization, wellbeing, nutrition, and psychological development. Positive parenting practices may be a protective factor for children and improve children's development and self-confidence. On the contrary, negative parenting practices and parental stress predicted a significant adverse effect on children's development and functioning and were linked to children's behavioral, social and emotional problems. Based on the research findings, parents' sociodemographic characteristics were significant factors in experienced parental stress and parenting practices. Particularly, the fathers' results indicated a more dysfunctional relationship with their children than those of the mothers. Participants with lower monthly income, unemployed participants, parents who resided in rural areas, and families with more than one child experienced more parental stress and applied more harsh and authoritarian parenting practices towards their children. Applications: The state should seriously consider strategies and methods for addressing parenting stress, which severely impacts the parents' and children's quality of life. To improve children's wellbeing, parental interventions may consider strengthening family functioning and reducing parental stress among mothers and fathers.

The purpose of this study was to verify a theoretical model of parents' responses to difficulties they experienced with their child. The model presents relationships between seven variables: (a) discrepancy between parental goal and the child's current level of development, (b) parental experience of a difficulty, (c) representation of the child in the parent's mind, (d) parent's withdrawal from the parenting situation, (e) seeking help, (f) distancing oneself from the situation, and (g) applying pressure on the child. The study involved 319 parents of preschool children: 66 parents of three-year-olds, 85 parents of four-year-olds, 99 parents of five-year-olds and 69 parents of six-year-old children. Structural equations modeling (SEM) was used to verify the compounds described in the theoretical model. The studies revealed that when a parent is experiencing difficulties, the probability increases that the parent will have one of two reactions towards that type of stress: withdrawal from the situation or applying pressure on the child. Experiencing difficulties has no connection with searching for help and is negatively related to distancing oneself from the situation.

High soil salinity negatively influences plant growth and yield. Some taxa have evolved mechanisms for avoiding or tolerating elevated soil salinity, which can be modulated by the environment experienced by parents or offspring. We tested the contribution of the parental and offspring environments on salinity adaptation and their potential underlying mechanisms. In a two-generation greenhouse experiment, we factorially manipulated salinity concentrations for genotypes of Medicago truncatula that were originally collected from natural populations that differed in soil salinity. To compare population level adaptation to soil salin-ity and to test the potential mechanisms involved we measured two aspects of plant performance , reproduction and vegetative biomass, and phenological and physiological traits associated with salinity avoidance and tolerance. Saline-origin populations had greater bio-mass and reproduction under saline conditions than non-saline populations, consistent with local adaptation to saline soils. Additionally, parental environmental exposure to salt increased this difference in performance. In terms of environmental effects on mechanisms of salinity adaptation, parental exposure to salt spurred phenological differences that facilitated salt avoidance, while offspring exposure to salt resulted in traits associated with greater salt tolerance. Non-saline origin populations expressed traits associated with greater growth in the absence of salt while, for saline adapted populations, the ability to maintain greater performance in saline environments was also associated with lower growth potential in the absence of salt. Plastic responses induced by parental and offspring environments in phenology, leaf traits, and gas exchange contribute to salinity adaptation in M. truncatula. The ability of plants to tolerate environmental stress, such as high soil salinity, is