Organic Fertilizer

Teaoil Camellia (Camellia oleifera Abel.) is a promising horticultural crop that has been cultivated for various purposes in China for more than 1000 years. It is a small tree, which grows naturally from latitudes of 18° to 34° North and in acidic soils where January mean temperatures do not drop below 2°C. As cooking oil, it compares favorably with olive oil, stores well at room temperature, and has a high smoke temperature. Teaoil is also used in the manufacture of soap, margarine, hair oil, lubricants, paint, rustproof oil and other compounds with a high-molecular weight as well as in cosmetology and dermopharmacy. Extracts from the residues of teaoil processing have been used in livestock feeds, pesticides and fertilizers. The use of tea oil products in controlling rice blast and wheat rust also suggests potential for the development of new biological-based pesticides from this plant. Although edible tea oil production covers about 40,000 km 2 in China, other countries know little about this species, only planting it as an ornamental plant. To share this valued crop to the world, selecting promising clones for targeted habitats is the key to success. Cloning propagation using hypocotyl grafting is recommended. Management practices, such as preparing planting sites with organic fertilizer, controlling weeds, thinning, pruning, alternating harvest time, improving harvest techniques, etc., could significantly increase the economic return for C. oleifera plantations. Further studies on the genetic improvement of tea oil will improve its popularity around the world.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the possibility of the re-use of industrial orange wastes as organic soil fertilizer. The assay was performed with a lettuce variety widely produced and consumed in Portugal and, consequently, with great commercial interest. Lactuca sativa L. (osteolata variety) was cultivated in Mitcherlich pots containing samples of a poor soil of the Algarve region. This soil was prepared with different amounts of either pulp or peel orange-wastes from an orange-juice industry. The wastes were applied according to an increasing amount of nitrogen. The results obtained were submitted to statistical tests, in order to find the relations between the production of fresh and dry matter, and the percentages of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron) that were obtained in the dry matter, with the types and amounts of wastes applied. An increase in the average production of both fresh-and dry-matter with increasing amounts of either pulp or peel wastes applied, and high positive correlation coefficients between the average percentages of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium obtained in the dry matter with the average production of both fresh-and dry-matter were found. No phytotoxicity was observed.

The aim of this study has been to determine the indirect and direct effects of farmyard manure and sewage sludge composts, produced in the northeastern part of Poland, on the content of 1 mol HCl⋅dm-3 soluble forms of zinc and copper in soil. In 2004-2007, a field experiment was carried out at the Experimental Station in Ba³cyny near Ostróda. The experiment was established on proper grey-brown podzolic soil originating from light boulder clay, which was rich in P, moderately abundant in K and low in Mg. It comprised a four-field crop rotation system (potato, spring barley, winter oilseed rape and winter wheat. The design of the experiment, set up according to the random block method, involved 8 objects (2 x 4): 1) farmyard manure, 2) compost (sewage sludge + straw), 3) dried and granulated sewage sludge, 4) composted sewage sludge. The composts and FYM were introduced to soil once (in 2004) at a rate of 10 t d.m.⋅ha-1 or 2 × 5 d.m.⋅ha-1 (under potato and winter oilseed rape). In 2004, nitrogen in the soil enriched with natural fertilizers was balanced to 150 kg⋅ha-1 according to the N-total content. In 2005, soil cropped with spring barley received only mineral fertilization, whereas winter oilseed rape received the second rate of organic fertilizers (in the series consisting of 2 × 5 d.m.⋅ha-1) and nitrogen was balanced to 120 kg⋅ha-1. In 2006, soil under winter wheat received only mineral fertilization. Prior to the establishment of the experiment, soil, manure and compost samples were taken. Having been averaged, the samples were subjected to determination of their content of Cu and Zn in 1 mol HCl dm-3. The soil, whose reaction was 5.04 in 1 mol HCl dm-3 , was moderately abundant in available zinc and low in copper. After four years of the trials, the levels of available forms of copper and zinc in the soil fertilized with sewage sludge

The production of solid organic waste (SOW) such as sewage sludge (SS) or municipal solid waste (MSW) has been continuously increasing in Europe since the beginning of the 1990'. Today, the European Union encourages the stabilization of these wastes using biologic processes such as anaerobic digestion and/or composting to produce bio-energy and organic fertilizers. However, the design and management of such biologic processes require knowledge about the quantity and quality of the organic matter (OM) contained in the SOW. The current methods to characterize SOW are tedious, time-consuming and often insufficiently informative. In this paper, we assess the potential of solid-phase fluorescence (SPF) spectroscopy to quickly provide a relevant characterization of SOW. First, we tested well known model compounds (tryptophan, bovine serum albumin, lignin and humic acid) and biologic matrix (Escherichia coli) in three dimensional solid-phase fluorescence (3D-SPF) spectroscopy. We recorded fluorescence spectra from proteinaceous samples but we could not record the fluorescence emitted by lignin and humic acid powders. For SOW samples, fluorescence spectra were successfully recorded for MSW and most of its sub-components (foods, cardboard) but impossible for SS, sludge compost (SC) and ligno-cellulosic wastes. Based on visual observations and additional assays, we concluded that the presence of highly light-absorptive chemical structures in such dark-colored samples was responsible for this limitation. For such samples, i.e. lignin, humic acid, SS, SC and ligno-cellulosic wastes, we show that laser induced fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopy enables the acquisition of 2D fluorescence spectra.

The synergetic effect of organic (cow manure) and mineral fertilization on the development arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi was demonstateded. The length of AM mycelium and sporulation were used as sensitive markers of the physiological state of soil AM fungal population. In manured treatments, both parameters increased in proportion with increasing mineral fertilization. In unmanured soil, the opposite

Land spreading of dairy soiled water (DSW) may result in pollution of ground and surface waters. Treatment of DSW through sludge-supernatant separation using chemical coagulants is a potential option to reduce the negative environmental impacts of DSW. The aims of this study were to (1) assess the effectiveness of three chemical coagulants-poly-aluminium chloride (PACl), ferric chloride (FeCl 3) and alum-in improving effluent quality, and (2) assess the properties of the sludge that is generated as by-product from the process for its suitability for land application. Taking into consideration optimum doses to minimize pollutants (turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), and E. coli), optimum mixing times and cost, FeCl 3 was the best performing coagulant. Generated sludges had higher nutrient content and fewer E. coli than raw DSW, and did not display any evidence of phytotoxicity to the growth of Lolium perenne L. using germination tests. The study discussed the results in a sustainable farm management context, and suggested that the effluent (supernatant) from the treatments may be recycled to wash farm yards, saving water. In parallel, the sludge portion can be applied to amend soil properties with no adverse impacts on the grass growth, providing an agronomic value as an organic fertilizer, and reducing the risk of nutrient losses. This management approach could minimize the overall net cost compared to land application of raw DSW.

Current experiment was laid out in order to compare different kinds of organic manure and chemical fertilizer application in growing spinach under the open-field conditions in two successive seasons. Matador type spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.) was cultivated organically and conventionally and spinach growth, yield, vitamin C and nitrate concentrations were checked throughout two successive seasons (autumn and winter). Commercial chemical

Two field experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of organic fertilizer application either with or without antagonistic bacteria (Bacillus subtilis SQR-5 and Paenibacillus polymyxa SQR-21) on the control of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Cucumerinum J. H. Owen wilt disease in cucumber. The incidence of Fusarium wilt disease was 5.3–13.5% for cucumber plants treated with bioorganic fertilizer, while it was 30.3–51% in controls (only with organic fertilizer). Higher yields and lower disease incidences were observed in the dry season when compared with the wet season for both types of organic fertilizer treatments. Biolog analysis showed a significant change in soil bacterial composition and activity after bioorganic fertilizer application. The numbers of colony-forming units of F. oxysporum f. sp. Cucumerinum J. H. Owen for bioorganic-fertilizer-treated soils were significantly decreased compared with control. Scanning electron micrographs of cucumber basal stems showed a presence of mycelia-like mini strands accompanied by an amorphous substance within the xylem vessels. This amorphous substance and mini strands were richer in calcium and phosphorus but had low carbon and oxygen than the living mycelia. Reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopic analysis showed that the antagonistic bacteria produced the antifungal compounds fusaricidin A, B, C, and D with molecular weights of 883.5, 897.5, 947.5, and 961.5 Da, respectively. The application of bioorganic fertilizer has a great potential for the control of F. oxysporum wilt disease in cucumber plants.

This study investigates an arable field soil with long-term (27 and 28 years) mineral (NPK) and organic (cattle manure, cattle manure with biodynamic preparations) fertilizer amendments at low, medium and high amounts. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi host plant wheat was cultivated in the first vegetation period and non-host amaranth in the second. Phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) were used to assess soil microbial biomass and community structure. AM fungi were quantified using the marker fatty acid 16:15, with its occurrence in soil PLFAs representing hyphae and in neutral lipid fatty acid (NLFA) spores. Soil microbial biomass was enhanced by the addition of manure and at higher amounts for both fertilizers. AM fungal hyphae and spore biomass responded positively to manure application. The soil microbial community under both crops was dominated by bacteria. The ratio of fungal to bacterial (f/b) PLFAs increased with higher fertilizer amounts but decreased in amaranth plots with the application of manure. Meanwhile the ratio of Gram+/Gram− bacteria indicating environmental conditions (e.g. pH, temperature) was higher in amaranth plots with the addition of manure as compared to wheat plots. Soil PLFA revealed distinct effect of crop type displayed by changes in the occurrence of saturated fatty acids and biomarkers for Gram-negative bacteria and saprotrophic fungi. The latter additionally accounted for the dissimilarity between fertilizer treatments. In sum, the soil PLFA pattern distinctively separated wheat from amaranth plots at 0-5 cm soil depth, indicating a stronger effect of crop rotation and crop identity on soil microorganisms than long-term fertilizer practice.

Parque Porcino de Ventanilla has an extension of 840 ha with 2200 farmers dedicated to pig production. There is a lack of services in the area (i.e., water supply, electricity, or waste collection). Anaerobic treatment of pig manure would replace current dumping and incineration, reducing environmental pollution and hazards to public health, as well as providing an organic fertilizer and biogas. The objective of the present work was to study the viability of ambient temperature anaerobic digestion of pig manure diluted in urine, by means of on-site pilot scale reactors. The final goal was to establish design parameters for anaerobic digesters to be implemented; since it was part of a project to improve life conditions for the farmers through the incorporation of better management techniques. Experiments were carried out in a low-cost pilot plant, which consists of three anaerobic digesters (225 L total volume), without heating or agitation, placed in a greenhouse. The start-up of the digestion process was performed with a mixture of temperature adapted pig manure-sludge and fresh rumen, and showed a good performance regardless of the dilution of pig manure with water or urine, which is a key parameter due to the scarcity of water in the area under study.

This study examined the hypothesis that incorporation of Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp.) (gliricidia), a fastgrowing, nitrogen-fixing tree, into agroforestry systems in southern Malawi may be used to increase the input of organic fertilizer and reduce the need for expensive inorganic fertilizers. The productivity of maize (Zea mays L.), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) and gliricidia grown as sole stands or in mixed cropping systems was examined at Makoka Research Station (latitude 15 • 30 S, longitude 35 • 15 E) and a nearby farm site at Nazombe between 1996 and 2000. Treatments included gliricidia intercropped with maize, with or without pigeonpea, and sole stands of gliricidia, maize and pigeonpea. Trees in the agroforestry systems were pruned before and during the cropping season to provide green leaf manure. Maize yields and biomass production by each component were determined and fractional light interception was measured during the reproductive stage of maize. Substantial quantities of green leaf manure (2.4 to 9.0 Mg ha −1 year −1 ) were produced from the second or third year after tree establishment. Green leaf manure and fuelwood production were greatest when gliricidia was grown as unpruned sole woodlots (c. 8.0 and 22 Mg ha −1 year −1 respectively). Improvements in maize yield in the tree-based systems also became significant in the third year, when c. 3.0 Mg ha −1 of grain was obtained. Tree-based cropping systems were most productive and exhibited greater fractional light interception (c. 0.6 to 0.7) than cropping systems without trees (0.1 to 0.4). No beneficial influence of pigeonpea on maize performance was apparent either in the presence or absence of gliricidia at either site in most seasons. However, as unpruned gliricidia provided the greatest interception of incident solar radiation (>0.9), coppicing may be required to reduce shading when gliricidia is grown together with maize. As pigeonpea production was unaffected by the presence of gliricidia, agroforestry systems containing gliricidia might be used to replace traditional maize + pigeonpea systems in southern Malawi.

The potential toxicity of urban sewage and farmed salmon sludge, as well as their fertilizer potential, was evaluated by a battery of tests carried out with lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) cv. Winter Star. Wastes were evaluated in a Patagonian soil (Andic cryofluvent) and a granitic soil (Ultic Palexeralf). The treatments were municipal sewage sludge (MSS), salmon ground-farming waste (PSW) and salmon lake-farming waste (LSW) at different rates: 25, 50, 75, 100 and 150 t ha -1 . Bioassays in lettuce were conducted for germination index (GI), radicle and hypocotyl structure length. Test in ryegrass were conducted for aboveground biomass yield. The phytotoxicological results from Patagonian soil showed significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) among sludge, where the highest values for GI, radicle and hypocotyl length were for LSW, followed by PSW. Results from granitic soil showed no significant differences among sludge added. In both soils, MSS treatment at application rate of 150 t ha -1 presented the smallest radicle length, not showing development of the hypocotyl structure. Biomass data indicated that MSS, PSW and LSW sludge can be applied at 25 to 150 t ha -1 on Patagonian soil and only LSW sludge on granitic soil. However, its addition should be complemented with N and K inorganic fertilizer to increase pasture yield. MSS and PSW sludge applied at 150 t ha -1 was clearly detrimental for crop yield, especially when applied to granitic soil.

Vermicomposting technology has been gaining attention as an environmental friendly waste management approach in both industrial and agricultural sectors. Studies have been carried out on processing various type of wastes into value added products. It is a green technology that produces vermicompost which has been proven to be effective as a plant nutrient supplement. Besides that, in the vermicomposting process, leachate that is derived from it contains high amount of valuable plant nutrients which has the potential to be used as liquid fertilizer as well as in hydroponics culture as a nutrient solution. Limited number of studies have been carried out on vermicomposting leachate as liquid fertilizer and its potential in hydroponic culture is almost non-existent. This paper reviews the potential of vermicomposting leachate as foliar fertilizer and nutrient solution in hydroponics and its limitations.

The natural 15N abundance (δ15N) of different ecosystem compartments is considered to be an integrator of nitrogen (N) cycle processes. Here we investigate the extent to which patterns of δ15N in grassland plants and soils reflect the effect of different management practices on N cycling processes and N balance. Investigations were conducted in long-term experimental plots of permanent montane meadows with treatments differing in the amount and type of applied fertilizer (0–200 kg N ha−1 yr−1; mineral fertilizer, cattle slurry, stable manure) and/or the cutting frequency (1–6 cuts per season). The higher δ15N values of organic fertilizers compared to mineral fertilizer were reflected by higher δ15N values in soils and harvested plant material. Furthermore, δ15N of top soils and plant material increased with the amount of applied fertilizer N. N balances were calculated from N input (fertilization, atmospheric N deposition and symbiotic N2 fixation) and N output in harvest. ‘Excess N’—the fraction of N input not harvested—was assumed to be lost to the environment or accumulated in soil. Taking fertilizer type into account, strong positive correlations between δ15N of top soils and the N input–output balance were found. In plots receiving mineral N fertilizer this indicates that soil processes which discriminate against 15N (e.g. nitrification, denitrification, ammonia volatilization) were stimulated by the increased supply of readily available N, leading to loss of the 15N depleted compounds and subsequent 15N enrichment of the soils. By contrast, in plots with organic fertilization this correlation was partly due to accumulation of 15N-enriched fertilizer N in top soils and partly due to the occurrence of significant N losses. Cutting frequency appeared to have no direct effect on δ15N patterns. This study for the first time shows that the natural abundance of 15N of agricultural systems does not only reflect the type (organic or mineral fertilizer) or amount of annual fertilizer amendment (0–200 kg ha−1 yr−1) but that plant and soil δ15N is better described by N input–output balances.

This study examined the effects of agricultural intensity, various farming practices, landscape composition and vegetation cover on the abundance and species richness of wintering farmland birds, assessed simultaneously across seven European regions. The abundance and species richness of wintering farmland birds were negatively affected by agricultural intensity. The effects of yield and farm type were interlinked. Of the 10 farming practices assessed, mechanical weeding and the amount of organic fertilizer applied negatively affected farmland birds, presumably due to reduced food availability on arable fields. Positive effects of organic farming on farmland birds proved to be limited to simplified landscapes. More farmland birds were observed in areas with more stubble, pasture and green manure crops. Species richness was higher in areas with more pasture. The results of this study show that farm management, vegetation cover and landscape composition all influence wintering farmland birds. Heterogeneous landscapes comprising arable crops as well as grasslands support most species of farmland birds in winter. The effectiveness of organic farming and agri-environment schemes depends on landscape composition. Therefore, different agri-environment schemes should be designed for different landscape types.

A field experiment was conducted during 2014-2015 season to study the effect of two soil fertilizer treatments 200 kg/ha compound fertilizer NPK 18-18-18 and organic manure (10 ton/ha of sheep manure) and their interaction with high potash [1% of N-P-K, 0-5-36] and silicon [0.5 mM of potassium silicate on broad bean antioxidants [superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione (GSH), ascorbic acid and proline] in saline soil (9.4 dS/m). The application of soil fertilizers caused a significant increase in the activity of CAT, APX, GSH, but it had no significant effect on SOD activity. While it caused a significant decrease in proline and a changeable effect on ascorbic acid content whereas compound fertilizer caused a significant reduction in ascorbic acid compared to control. The organic fertilizer caused a significant increase in ascorbic acid compared to control. Foliar fertilizers resulted in significant increase in the activity of CAT, SOD, GSH and proline, but it had no significant effect on APX and ascorbic acid compared to control. The interactions between the factors caused significant effects on all parameters.

There are various biofertilizer products in the market in Nigeria and imported globally which claimed to have beneficial microbes for sustainable agriculture. Biowaste recycled in anaerobic digested (26 days)  and inoculated with Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and biocontrol microorganisms called OBD-Biofertilizer with field application and evaluation grown with selected crops in different agro-ecology in Nigeria certified by federal fertilizer department, federal ministry of agriculture and rural development, Abuja, Nigeria within  (2011-2015).  This study was conducted to identify and assess the microbial contents of various biofertilizer products available in the market known as imported biofertilizers (Thailand, China and Australia). A comparative analysis  of a total of 13 isolates of bacteria were identified from these biofertilizer products based on Tan et al, 2009 isolation of beneficial microbes from biofertilizer. Bacillus group was the most dominant strain found in these products imported biofertilizers and can be classified as Nitrogen fixing biofertilizers eg.  Rhizobium, Azospirillum  and  Azotobacter; Phosphorous solubilising biofertilizers (PSB) eg. Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Aspergillu ; PGPR) eg.  Pseudomonas and generally known as mono-biofertilizer (all bacteria only). OBD-Biofertilizer (broad spectrum biofertilizer) containing bacteria and fungi including Phosphate mobilizing biofertilizer eg. Mycorrhiza and Actinomycetes.  Imported Biofertilizer do not contain mycofungicides , biological control agents (BCA) while  OBD-Bioferilizer contain Aspergillus Niger. OBD-Biofertilizer contains Actinomycetes are also used as plant growth-promoting agents (help to produce plant growth hormone Indole-3-acetic acid), biocontrol tools, biopesticide agents, antifungal compounds, and biocorrosion and as a source of agroactive compounds. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in OBD-Biofertilizer are considered to be primary soil aggregators and aggregate stability in natural systems because it contain glomalin , a glycoprotein produced by AMF hyphae.  OBD-Biofertilizer contains genus Thiobacillus, sulphur oxidizers, which enhance the natural oxidation and speed up the production of sulphates; play important role in the formation of proteins, vitamins and enzymes in plant development, remediation and restoration ecology. Two field experiments were carried out at Badeggi, Niger state, Nigeria in 2011 and 2012 to evaluate the response of lowland rice to a OBD-Biofertilizer. The experimental field was laid out in a strip-plot design with five treatments and three replications using the FARO 44 and FARO 52 rice varieties. The highest rice grain yield increase of 4.4 t/ha over the control in 2012 and was far more than Nigeria’s average of lowland rice grain yields of 1.5 t/ha.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1eCAloMWG3g

Keywords:
Anaerobic digester,  Recycle  Bio-waste , OBD-Biofertilizer, isolation, beneficial microbes, biofertilizer products,  Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, Rice crop

The present study was carried out during two successive seasons, 2011/2012 and
2012/2013, at the Agricultural Research Station; El-Otouria, Sheehaniya, Doha,
Qatar; to investigate the response of two tomato cultivars (Isabella and Milas) to
biofertilizers and amino acids. Two biofertilizer treatments, rizobacterien at a rate of
2 and 4 liter per feddan and one of amino acid (Delfan) at a rate of 200 ppm, were
used. Chicken manure, at a rate of 10 tons/ feddan, was the control treatment. Results
showed the superiority of Isabella compared to Milas in terms of vegetative growth
and fruit yield. Using Rizobacterien at a rate of 4 liter/feddan plus Delfan (amino
acids) at a rate of 200 ppm increased growth and fruit chemical characters, earliness
and total yield. The average fruit weight per plant was significantly high under
Rizobacteria at a rate of 4 liter/feddan plus Delfan (amino acids) at a rate of 200 ppm.
The lowest vegetative growth, fruit and yield characters were obtained from
Rizobacteria at a rate of 2 liter/feddan. The water productivity results showed that all
treatments led to the increase of fruit yield. Isabella cultivar had higher water
productivity than Milas cultivar. Using of Rizobacterien at a rate of four liter/feddan
also increased the water productivity. The same trend was obtained by using Delfan
at a rate of 200 ppm. Concerning water productivity, Isabella cultivar had higher
water productivity 16.7 and 17.2 kg of tomato fruits per cubic meter of irrigation
water (m
3
)compared with Milas cultivar which produced15.9 and 16.5 kg tomato
fruits per cubic meter of irrigation water for first and second seasons, respectively.
Isabella cultivar plus amino acid (Delfan) gave the highest water productivity 19.1
and 19.7 kg of tomato fruits per m3 water for first and second seasons, respectively
compared the other treatments

Nitrogen N biogeochemistry of aquaculture ponds is dominated by biological transformations of N added to ponds in the form of inorganic or organic fertilizers and formulated feeds. Nitrogen application in excess of pond assimilatory capacity can lead to the deterioration of water quality Ž . through the accumulation of nitrogenous compounds e.g., ammonia and nitrite with toxicity to fish or shrimp. Principal sources of ammonia include fish excretion and sediment flux derived from the mineralization of organic matter and molecular diffusion from reduced sediment, although cyanobacterial nitrogen fixation and atmospheric deposition are occasionally important. Principal sinks for ammonia include phytoplankton uptake and nitrification. The magnitude of losses by ammonia volatilization and ammonium fixation to cation exchange sites is minor, but unknown. Interactions between pond sediment and water are important regulators of N biogeochemistry. Sediment represents a source of ammonia and a sink for nitrite and nitrate. The large volume of reduced sediment suggests that the potential for N removal by denitrification is high, although the magnitude of N removal by this mechanism is low because nitrification and denitrification are tightly coupled in aquatic sediments and sediment nitrification is limited by the depth of sediment oxygen penetration. Nitrogen biogeochemistry of aquaculture ponds is affected by feeds and feeding practices, water exchange and circulation, aeration, pond depth and other management procedures. Opportunities for management of N biogeochemistry are limited and goals are based largely on the intensity of fish production. q

This study investigated a sustainable alternative to grow crops using organic wastes as biofertilizers. Fresh fish waste (FFW) and cooked fish waste (CFW) mixed with sawdust from Tryplochyton scleroxylon wood species (Wawa) were made into compost heaps. Control compost from rice bran (CRB) was also prepared. Higher temperatures were recorded from compost heaps prepared from both FFW (38 -52°C) and CFW (37 -52°C) than from CRB (33 -45°C); with reduction in composting time and generation of large numbers of microorganisms in the fish-based compost heaps. Mycelial colonization of compost bags and subsequent growth of oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus species) were faster in fish-based substrates (FFW and CFW) as compared to CRB. P. eous and P. oestreatus exhibited uniform spread of mycelia in the compost bags than P. eous hybrid. However, P. eous hybrid produced the fastest rate of mycelial growth, completely colonizing the substrate within 26 days. Growth of each species of mushroom investigated was independent of the substrate in which it was grown. Irrespective of the substrate used to grow the mushroom, the pattern of utilization and growth remained the same. Oyster mushrooms grown on fish-based substrates produced bigger and firmer fruiting bodies. This alternative could be very attractive to small farmers throughout the world, who are known to operate under adverse conditions and limited resources.

Animal fleshing (ANFL) is the major proteinaceous solid waste generated during the manufacture of leather, which requires to be disposed of by environmentally sound manner. This study reports about the treatment of ANFL into an organic compost and its effects on physiological parameters of different crops in a laboratory study. The ANFL was hydrolysed using Selenomonas ruminantium HM000123 and then the hydrolysed ANFL was mixed with cow dung and leaf litter for producing composted organic fertilizer (COF). The COF was characterized for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total Kjeldhal nitrogen (TKN), and total organic carbon (TOC). The composting resulted in a significant reduction in pH, TOC and C:N ratio and an increase in TKN after 49 days in a compost reactor. Scanning electron microscope and FT-IR were used to analyse the hydrolysis of intra structural ANFL matrix and changes in the functional groups, respectively, in initial and final day COF. Thermogravimetry (TG) analysis was carried out for the raw mixture and COF samples to identify the weight loss under the nitrogen environment. The relative seed germination was found to be 94% in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), 92% in green gram (Vigna radiata), 86% in bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl.) and 84% in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) using the extracts of COF. The results indicate that the combination of both hydrolysis and bacterial composting reduced the overall time required for composting and producing a nutrient-enriched compost product.

— A field experiment was conducted during rainy season 2015 at experimental farm of the Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Gadraif in Sudan. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of different sources of fertilizers (i.e. organic and inorganic) on the performance of okra under rainfed conditions of Gadarif State in Sudan. The experiment contained eight treatments, two levels of organic fertilizer; with and without application of chicken manure and four levels of nitrogenous fertilizers (urea) donated as 0N (control), 1N (80kgN/fed), 2N (160 kg/fed), 3N (240 kg N/fed). These treatments were allocated in factorial arrangement according to randomized completely block block design (RCBD) with three replications. The results revealed significant differences among the treatments in all growth and yield parameters. The application of organic fertilizer (chicken manure) substaintially increased growth and improved yield of okra comparing with the sole application of the chemical fertilizer (urea). Moreover increasing nitrogen rate significantly increased growth and yield of okra up to 2N (160 kg N/fed) but the highest rate of nitrogen (240 kg N/fed) substantially recorded lower averages of all parameters compared with 2N rate (160 kg N/fed) in sole application of urea and in combination with chicken manure. The combination of 2t/ha chicken manure and 2N rate (160 kg N/fed) significantly increased all growth and yield attributes of okra crop under rainfed conditions of Sudan.

The study was conducted to observe the effects of different organic fertilizers on the growth and yield of lettuce in the field conditions during the period from October 2011 to January 2012. The experiment was performed by randomized block design consisted of four factors as well as control (without fertilizer), poultry manure (chicken litter), cattle manure (cow dung) and commercial fertilizer. Under these four factors, eight treatments namely T 0 (control); T 1 , T 2 and T 3 (10, 20, 30 tons/ha of poultry manure, respectively); T 4 , T 5 and T 6 (15, 25, 35 tons/ha of cattle manure, respectively); and T 7 (10 tons/ha commercial fertilizer), with three replications were applied. The studies revealed that the highest production of lettuce was obtained by using eco-friendly organic fertilizer followed by commercial fertilizer than control one. The average maximum number of leaves, root length and yield per plot were observed by using cow dung in T 6 , while the lowest in T 0. The chicken litter fertilized plants had relatively higher average leaves length, leaves breadth and base diameter; while the maximum dry matter content and yield per hectare were found by applying cow dung in T 5. The highest gross return of BDT 1168800/ha and net return of BDT 683229/ha with the benefit cost ratio of 1.40 was obtained from T 5. From the economic point of view, it is concluded that T 5 was the best dose of fertilizer for maximizing the growth and yield of lettuce.

A field experiment was conducted on sweet pepper for yield and quality of fruits using different types of organic and inorganic fertilizers at the farm of Patuakhali Science and Technology University. Inorganic and organic fertilizers treatments were tested on California variety of sweet pepper. The fertilization treatments were T1, (Urea +TSP+ MOP): (260+120+124) kg/ha; T2, Cow dung: 9 t/ha; T3, Poultry manure: 7 t/ha; T4, (Urea + cow dung): (195kg +2.5 t/ha); T5,(Urea + poultry manure): (180 kg + 2t/ha); T6, (Urea + cow dung): (130kg + 4.5 t/ha); T7, (Urea + poultry manure): (140kg +3 t/ha);T8, Control: no manure and fertilizer. Randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates were used to conduct this experiment. Physiochemical properties of soil were increasing after harvesting of sweet pepper. Obtained results showed that urea with cow dung (130kg + 4 tons)/ha (T6) increased sweet pepper production. Combined application of urea with cow dung showed significant increase in leaves number per plant (174), Leaf area (48.6cm2), Root/canopy (15.2%), Plant fresh weight (378.5g), No. of fruits/plant (16.6), Fruit length (9.9cm), Fruit diameter (5.8cm), Average green fruit weight (142.1g), Average dry fruit weight (84.6g), yield/replicate (38.5Kg), no. of branching (10.6). Urea with cow dung influenced the total yield per replicate and extended the period of pepper fruit production compared to other treatments.

Organic fertilizer is a good source of nutrients for the soil. It improves the soil's physical, chemical and biological characteristics. This study was conducted to evaluate the growth and yield performance of pechay applied with different levels of compost as organic fertilizer and determines the effect of organic fertilizer in terms of plant height, number of leaves per plant, fresh weight per plant and leaf area. The pot experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with five treatments and replicated three times. Significant differences between treatments means were determined using the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed, that there were no significant differences in the plant height and number of leaves. However, leaf area of pechay was significantly affected by application of T3 = 50% pure garden soil: 50% pure compost (OF) in combination and in terms of yield, the fresh weight of pechay was significantly increased with the application of T4 = 75% pure garden soil: 25% pure compost (OF). Application of 50% pure garden soil: 50% pure compost (OF) and 75% pure garden soil: 25% pure compost (OF) significantly affected the leaf area and fresh weight of pechay. This implies that compost application greatly increased or influenced the growth and development of the pechay plant.

Background The utilization of organic fertilizer is an effective method in organic culture of medicinal plants because of its beneficial effects on soil structure, reduction of environmental problem and improvement in plant growth. The experiments were conducted in a research field at the University of Guilan at the Rasht and Torbat-e-Jam Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. The experiment was conducted to determine the effects of 7 Mt ha-1 of cow manure vermicompost, vermiwash prepared from 7 Mt ha-1 of vermicompost, leachate vermicompost ? vermiwash, 50 Mt ha-1 municipal solid waste compost (MSWC), chemical fertilizer (50, 0, 300 NPK) and no fertilization as a control on peppermint yield and quality. Results Organic fertilizers significantly affected all the measured characters except total phenols and antioxidant capacity compared to chemical fertilizers and the control. Plants treated with vermicompost, vermiwash or vermicompost leachate ? vermiwash were the tallest and had the highest levels of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and carotenoids. Plants treated with vermicompost had the highest essential oil yield (24.21 ml m-2). Plant growth in the Rasht region had the highest number of lateral branches (18), fresh (10.51 g) and dry weight (4.64 g) of plant, fresh (2,102.9 kg ha-1) and dry (928.67 kg ha-1) yield, leaf area index (0.17) and carotenoids (531.82 mg 100 g-1), while the highest oil per plant (0.24 ml plant-1) and oil yield (18.49 ml m-2), chlorophyll a (7.37 mg 100 g-1), b (4.07 mg 100 g-1) and total chlorophyll (11.44 mg 100 g-1), total phenol (7.48 mg gallic acid equivalent 100 g-1) and antioxidant capacity (71.89 (% of inhibition) were obtained from plants grown in the Torbat-e-Jam region. Conclusion Organic fertilizers beneficially affect soil structure and nutrient availability. The use of sustainable organic materials can increase fertility without negative effects on human health and environment. We counsel farmers to use leachate vermicompost and vermiwash in organic cultivation of peppermint separately or mixed together.

This paper aims to (1) examine the challenges in the compost facilities of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), (2) optimize the composting techniques using indigenous natural zeolite and locally produced biochar from agricultural residues and (3) evaluate the environmental and economic benefits of optimized food waste composting. In KSA food waste is the most abundant stream of municipal solid waste that contribute up to 50% of the total waste. The landfill disposal of this waste results in several environmental and public health issues. Resource recovery through composting is one of the best approaches for treating such nutrient-rich organic waste. There exist several facilities in KSA for the conversion of food waste to compost using conventional methods of compost piles and trenches. However, none of the produced compost is capable of improving the quality and fertility of sandy soils and the growth of the crops due to limited values of organic matter, nutrients and water holding capacity along with high moisture contents, nitrification index, weed seed contents and ammonia emissions. In KSA, vast reservoirs of natural zeolite are available near to Jeddah city. Similarly, in KSA the most cultivated tree is date palm with more than 22 million date trees that would provide sufficient feedstock for biochar production. Therefore, diverting food waste from landfills to optimized composting facilities using natural zeolites and biochar could benefit the KSA economy with a total net savings of about US $70.72 million per year.

Farm land in Indonesia, both dry land and wet land, generally have low soil organic content, of less than 2%. Therefore, adding organic matter to the soil in order to improve soil productivity is recommended. Crop residues and animal waste are potential as source for organic matter. Composted organic matter can be used as fertilizers containing macro and micro nutrients. The availability of organic fertilizer can be utilzed as a basis to promote sustainable agriculture development. In each district in Indonesia, such as one of Kampar District in Riau Province, the material for organic fertlizer is readily available. It was estimated the crop residues from food crops alone amounted to 40,930 ton per year, crop residues from estate crops amounted to 74,840 ton per year, and animal waste 17,612 ton per year. From those organic matter, when fermented into compost, can be used as fertlizer to cover farm land area of 56,455 ha annually, thus, can be expected to improve soil quality gradually.

... climatic conditions Ana Meijide & Laura M. Cárdenas & Laura Sánchez-Martín & Antonio Vallejo Received: 7 December 2008 /Accepted: 15 July 2009 /Published online: 1 August 2009 © Springer Science+Business Media BV 2009 ... 2000; Chantigny et al. 2001). Mondini et al. ...

Fusarium wilt disease in melon (Cucumis melo L.) is widespread, responsible for serious economic losses. Pot and field experiments were performed to investigate the effects of different bio-organic fertilizers (BIOs) made from organic fertilizer and different antagonistic microbes. BIOs decreased the incidence of fusarium wilt disease and increased melon yield. The disease incidence of treatments with double application (BIOs applied both in the nursery and in the pot soil) was 20%, much lower than control (80%). Moreover, double application of a mix termed BIOII resulted in a 17.4-fold increase in plant fresh weight compared to control. Application of BIOs strongly reduced the number of pathogen colony-forming units (cfu) in stems and roots of melon. Pathogen populations were 2.27 × 10 3 and 6.67 × 10 3 cfu g −1 FW (fresh weight) on BIOII-treated stems and roots, respectively, and 8.17 × 10 4 and 3.67 × 10 4 cfu g −1 FW on control stems and roots, respectively; i.e., cfus were reduced by 97% and 82%, respectively. Microbial community structure was ameliorated by all BIOs. The number of bacteria and actinomycota in rhizosphere soil increased markedly under all BIO applications compared to control. In contrast, pathogen and fungal density was dramatically higher in the rhizosphere of control plants. The activities of defense enzymes in the leaves of melons receiving double application of BIOII were lower than those of control plants. The highest melon yield was achieved by plants that received a double application of BIOII in field experiments (7225 kg ha −1 vs. 4447 kg ha −1 for control plants). In conclusion, the most effective treatment was double application of BIOII, which minimized the incidence of wilt disease, maximized biomass production, and altered microbial community structure.

Purpose Field experiment was carried out in Akure in the rainforest zone of Nigeria to determine the effect of poultry manure, wood ash and rice bran on the soil fertility improvement, growth and head yield of cabbage (Brassica oleraceae L) in 2011 and 2012 cropping seasons. Methods The three organic fertilizer treatments were applied each at 6 t/ha with a reference treatment NPK 15-15-15 applied at 300 kg/ha and a control treatment arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replicates. Results The results showed significant increases (P \ 0.05) in the growth and head yield parameters of cabbage crop under the different organic fertilizers compared to the control treatment. The application of poultry manure resulted in the highest values of cabbage plant height, stem girth, leaf number, leaf area, head weight, head length and head girth followed by NPK 15-15-15, wood ash and rice bran, respectively. Cabbage head weight, head girth, head length, plant height, stem girth, leaf number and leaf area increased by 17, 18, 8,17, 19, 10 and 16 %, respectively, with application of poultry manure compared to NPK fertilizer. Also, these parameters increased by 23, 21, 13 29, 25, 17 and 45 % compared to the wood ash treatment. The highest values of soil pH, Ca and Mg were obtained under wood ash application, while the highest values of soil O.M and moderate values of soil P, K, Ca and Mg were obtained under poultry manure application. Moderate values of soil pH, K, Ca and low % N were also recorded under rice bran treatment. However, the highest K/Ca, K/Mg and P/Mg ratios of 93.1, 74.1 and 572.1, respectively, were obtained under NPK 15-15-15 fertilizer application compared to 2:1 K/Ca, 2:1 K/Mg and 16:1 P/Mg in rice bran treatment. Conclusion The poultry manure applied at 6 t/ha gave the best results in improving soil fertility, growth and head yield of cabbage, and this was because of its balanced nutrient composition and the least C/N ratio. Keywords Cabbage (Brassica oleraceae) Á Head yield and growth parameters Á Organic fertilizers and soil fertility improvement

Since soil management systems infl uence soil physical fertility, it is important to determine the effect of long-term organic fertilizer amendments on soil physical properties such as water-holding capacity. Addition of organic materials of different origins to soil has been one of the most common rehabilitation practices to improve soil physical properties. This is essential to sustaining the productivity of

Agricultural practices, such as mineral nitrogen fertilization, have an impact on the soil's ability to oxidize methane, but little is known about the shifts in the methanotrophic community composition associated with these practices. Therefore, the long-term effect of both mineral (NH 4 NO 3 ) and organic (manure and GFT-compost) fertilizer applications on the soil methanotrophic community activity and structure were investigated. Both high and low affinity methane oxidation rates were lower in the soil treated with mineral fertilizer compared to the other soils. An enhanced nitrate concentration was observed in the mineral fertilized soil but nitrate did not show a direct affect on the high affinity methane oxidation. In contrast, the low affinity methane oxidation was slowed down by increased nitrate concentrations, which suggests a direct effect of nitrate on low affinity methane oxidation. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of 16S rRNA gene fragments specific for methanotrophs revealed a distinct community between the mineral and organic fertilized soils as extra Type I methanotrophic bands (phylotypes) became visible in the organic fertilized soils. These phylotypes were not visible in the patterns of the added organic fertilizers suggesting an indirect effect of the organic fertilizers on the methanotrophic community. Additionally, a molecular analysis was performed after the low affinity methane oxidation test. The enhanced methane concentrations used in the test enriched certain low affinity methanotrophs in the organic fertilized soils but not in the mineral fertilized soil. Supporting the molecular and functional observations, fatty acids characteristic for methanotrophs were less abundant in the soil treated with mineral fertilizer compared to the soil treated with compost. In conclusion, the function and molecular and chemical composition of the methanotrophic community are all altered in soil fertilized with mineral fertilizer.

Application of large amounts of mineral and organic fertilizers in intensive agricultural regions of Hamadan-Bahar watershed in western Iran contributes to excessive nutrient loads in soils and groundwater bodies. Groundwater supplies approximately 88% of the water consumed in Hamadan. The objective of this study was to investigate the temporal and spatial variability of nitrate leaching in Hamadan-Bahar watershed. We employed the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to model the amount and dynamics of nitrate leaching from a typical crop rotation in this watershed. The SWAT model was calibrated and validated with uncertainty analysis using SUFI-2 (Sequential Uncertainty Fitting, ver. 2) based on measured daily discharge data from 7 hydrometric stations, wheat and potato yield, and measured daily nitrate at the outlet of the watershed. The calibration using crop yield increases the confidence on soil moisture and evapotranspiration. The calibration (R 2 = 0.83, NS = 0.77) and validation (R 2 = 0.70, NS = 0.70) results were quite satisfactory for the outlet of watershed. Spatial variations in nitrate leaching were also found to agree reasonably well with measured nitrate concentrations in groundwater (73% overlap based on a defined criterion). Also, nitrate leaching was found to be more significant under potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) rotation (254-361 kg N ha −1 year −1 ), representing 30-42% of nitrogen applied to the soil. About 36% of Hamadan-Bahar aquifer has a nitrate leaching rate higher than 100 kg N ha −1 year −1 . The presented model and its results have the potential to provide a strong base for considering different scenarios to reduce nitrate leaching and suggest a BMP (best management practice) in Hamadan-Bahar watershed.

Background: Palm oil mill effluent and palm press fiber are problematic wastes generated by the palm oil mill industries in Malaysia. This study has endeavored to assess the possibility of the vermicomposting of residue from the palm oil mills using epigeic earthworms Lumbricus rubellus under laboratory conditions. The study was conducted over 50 days using four combinations in three replicates of each treatment as palm oil mill effluent: palm press fiber in 50:50 ratio (T 1 ), palm oil mill effluent/palm press fiber/cow dung in 50:25:25 ratio (T 2 ), palm oil mill effluent/palm press fiber/cow dung/lawn clipping in 50:20:15:15 ratio (T 3 ), and only palm press fiber (T 4 ). Twenty healthy adult L. rubellus with average weight of 3.92 g was introduced.

Purpose A lots of poultry litter (PL) is being generated every day from poultry industries and improper management leads to different environmental problems. Production of biochar from PL is a new management strategy of PL which is a nutrientrich organic amendment for improving soil nutritional status. The experiment was aimed for the production of poultry litter biochar (PLB) from fresh PL to assess the important properties of both PL and PLB, and to observe the effects on plant growth. It also appraised the change of soil properties after PL and PLB application. Methods Poultry litter biochar was produced from fresh PL heated at 300 °C temperature for 10 min in muffle furnace. Poultry litter was applied into the soil at 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 t ha −1 and PLB was applied at 1, 2, 3 and 4 t ha −1 along with control. Gima kalmi (Ipomoea aquatica) was grown as test plant. To assess the potentiality and residual effect, the same plant was grown consecutively after harvesting first crop. Post-harvest soil analysis was also carried out after harvesting the first crop. Results After pyrolysis pH, EC, organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, total phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron were increased in PLB. A significant (p < 0.001) increase in plant growth and biomass production was observed and it was higher in PLB-treated soil than that of the PL-treated soil for both first and second crop. Conclusion Poultry litter biochar might be a promising organic fertilizer with high nutrient composition than fresh PL. This also could be an ecofriendly management strategy for sustainable agriculture and long-term productivity.

The effect of different treatments on the fate of applied P was investigated in a long-term field experiment started in 1972-1973 following a maize-wheat sequence. The soil samples were collected after 29 years of continuous addition of mineral fertilizers and amendments such as farmyard manure (FYM) and lime. The total P content of all the treatments increased compared to the original soil; NaOH-inorganic P (P i ) (NaOH-P i ) representing Fe and Al-bound P was the dominant P i fraction. At the beginning of the experiment (1972)(1973), the various P pools could be quantitatively ranked in the following order: residual P>NaOH-organic P (P o )>NaOH-P i >NaHCO 3 -P o >NaHCO 3 -P i >HCl-P>H 2 O-P. As a result of continued P fertilization and cropping, the order changed as follows: residual P>NaOH-P i >NaOH-P o >NaHCO 3 -P i >NaHCO 3 -P o >HCl-P>H 2 O-P. Compared to the imbalanced mineral fertilizer application, the balanced as well as integrated application of nutrients resulted in significantly lower P adsorption capacity of soils. The Olsen extractable-P fraction (plant-available P) increased from about 12 mg kg −1 soil in 1972 to about 81 mg kg −1 soil in the treatments receiving P for the last 29 years.

Citrus trees (Citrus spp.) considered one of the major fruit worldwide, due to continuous and excessive use of synthetic fertilizers, there is a severe hazard to human health and to environment. The integrated fertilizing system in citrus orchards contributes to improve crop production through eco-friendly nutrient supply, producing healthy fruits, enhancing the plant tolerance to biotic stresses, increases growers' profits, and sustains natural resources. There are numerous types of organic fertilizers used in citrus orchards include Compost, Vermicompost, Humic substances, Biochar, Farm manure, and, microorganisms in biofertilizers increase the amount and availability of essential elements to plant, there are various biofertilizers used for different purposes according to the role of microorganisms like Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms like Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Rhizobium and Frankia; Phosphorous solubilizing microbes such as Pseudomonas and Bacillus; Phosphorous mobilizing as Vascular arbuscular mycorrhiza, and Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). There are numerous beneficial effects of organic and biofertilizers include increasing availability of nutrients in soils, increase the tree productivity, enhancing fruit quality, improve soil properties, stimulate microflora population in the rhizosphere, reducing the harmful effects of pathogenic organisms, and improving plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, particularly using both organic and biofertilizers play a critical role in environmental conservation, they can compensate large amounts of inorganic, fertilizer , reducing the great amount of inorganic fertilizer used indiscriminately in citrus orchards. Using a consortium of organic and biofertilizers with mineral fertilizers provide a positive response in citrus orchards.

This study examined the hypothesis that incorporation of Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp.) (gliricidia), a fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing tree, into agroforestry systems in southern Malawi may be used to increase the input of organic fertilizer and reduce the need for expensive inorganic fertilizers. The productivity of maize (Zea mays L.), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) and gliricidia grown as sole stands or in mixed cropping systems was examined at Makoka Research Station (latitude 15° 30′ S, longitude 35° 15′ E) and a nearby farm site at Nazombe between 1996 and 2000. Treatments included gliricidia intercropped with maize, with or without pigeonpea, and sole stands of gliricidia, maize and pigeonpea. Trees in the agroforestry systems were pruned before and during the cropping season to provide green leaf manure. Maize yields and biomass production by each component were determined and fractional light interception was measured during the reproductive stage of maize. Substantial quantities of green leaf manure (2.4 to 9.0 Mg ha−1 year−1) were produced from the second or third year after tree establishment. Green leaf manure and fuelwood production were greatest when gliricidia was grown as unpruned sole woodlots (c. 8.0 and 22 Mg ha−1 year−1 respectively). Improvements in maize yield in the tree-based systems also became significant in the third year, when c. 3.0 Mg ha−1 of grain was obtained. Tree-based cropping systems were most productive and exhibited greater fractional light interception (c. 0.6 to 0.7) than cropping systems without trees (0.1 to 0.4). No beneficial influence of pigeonpea on maize performance was apparent either in the presence or absence of gliricidia at either site in most seasons. However, as unpruned gliricidia provided the greatest interception of incident solar radiation (>0.9), coppicing may be required to reduce shading when gliricidia is grown together with maize. As pigeonpea production was unaffected by the presence of gliricidia, agroforestry systems containing gliricidia might be used to replace traditional maize + pigeonpea systems in southern Malawi.

Following the national policy, the Department of Agriculture of Thailand has implemented a crop diversification program in several provinces of the country. This study, which was conducted in Nakhon Pathom Province, analyzed the extent of crop diversification and its determinants using primary information collected from 245 farm households using a structured questionnaire, and from selected farmer leaders and agricultural development officials. The study also assessed the effects of crop diversification on income and the inputs used. The findings of the study revealed that nearly three fourths of the land is still being used for rice mono-cropping, indicating little success in the promotion of the crop diversification program. Paddy fields, including farms for cultivating rice under mono-cropping and diversified system, still account for 90% of the total farmland in the country. The limited impact of the program on the farming sector is attributed primarily to the variation in land and labor resources available at the farmers' disposal as well as soil suitability. The farmers' attendance in training and interaction with farmer groups are the other influential factors. Although cropping diversification has provided attractive financial return particularly to the small farmers, it has also accelerated the use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. Broad policy instruments are therefore suggested for the effective implementation of future crop diversification programs in Thailand and perhaps elsewhere in Southeast Asia.

Traducido y adaptado del Capítulo 8 del libro “THE BIOGAS HANDBOOK, SCIENCE, PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS”, , editado por ARTHUR WELLINGER, JERRY MURPHY & DAVID BAXTER, publicado en el año 2013. La parte inicial del capítulo se publicó en las partes I y !!. Con esta parte III se completa la traducción y adaptación de ese capitulo.