Nonprofit Management Leadership

This is an exploratory study of leadership, organizational culture, and organizational innovativeness in a sample of nonprofit human service organizations: Associations of Retarded Citizens. Although leadership has been held out as one of the most important predictors of innovation, this study found it was not correlated with organizational innovativeness. Examination of the relationships between leadership and cultural variables provided some alternative explanations for this finding. Positive relationships among transformational leadership, organizational values, and cultural consensus (degree of agreement among employees on those values) indicate that leadership practices employed in this sample created strong cultural consensus around values that may inhibit innovation. These findings suggest that examining the link between leadership and organizational culture is important for understanding how leadership and innovation are related. This article sets out practical implications, based on the results of the study, that may help nonprofit managers create workplaces supportive of innovation.

How do key stakeholders of nonprofit organizations (NPOs) judge the effectiveness of their organization? Are the judgments of stakeholders similar, and how are board effectiveness and the use of practitioner-identified correct management procedures related to judgments of effectiveness? This study focuses on a subset of especially effective and less effective NPOs from a larger sample and finds that the especially effective have more effective boards (as judged by various stakeholder groups), have boards with higher social prestige, use more practitioner-identified correct management procedures, and use more change management strategies. Practical implications discussed include adopting more correct management procedures and change management strategies.

Nonprofit organizations rely on the mission to attract resources and guide decision making. Increasingly, mission statements are recognized as a strong management tool that can motivate employees and keep them focused on the organization' s purpose. This research investigated employee attitudes toward the mission in a youth and recreation service organization. In general, the employees expressed positive attitudes toward the organization' s mission, and those attitudes were related to employee satisfaction and intentions to remain with the organization. However, dissatisfaction with pay tended to override employee' s mission attachment as explanation of why they may leave the organization. The implication is that mission might be salient in attracting employees but less effective in retaining them.

This article reviews the notion of accountability as an intrinsic experience in daily organizational lije and contrasts it with the more traditional construct of accountability as an external control or monitoring device. The concept of “jelt responsibil-ity” can provide an opportunity to ...

Results from a survey of a national sample of 1,190 working adults update findings collected in 1977 (Mirvis and Hackett, 1983) on the characteristics and attitudes of people working in nonprofits. As in the earlier survey, it shows that people employed in the private nonprofit sector gain more satisfaction from their jobs than their counterparts in business and government and have more trust in their management. still, people working in nonprofits are just as concerned that their employers will “take advantage” of them and, in contrast to the 1977 survey, are no more psychologically committed to their organizations than are people in the other sectors.

The authors examined nineteen nonprofit performing arts organizations, investigating the distribution of influence among organizational members, the grouping of volunteers and staff in organizational structures, and the effectiveness of the organizations. The organizations' effectiveness was assessed using multiple performance indicators. The analysis revealed five groupings or configurations of influence, which correlated to the organizations exhibiting the highest and lowest levels of organizational effectiveness. The authors conclude that a variety of structures are associated with good performance but structural dysfunctions are associated with organizational failure, and that members' commitment to an organization's structure is an important element of success.

This article reviews research on motivation of employees in the nonprofit sector, with a major emphasis on the motivation of teachers and hospital nursing staff. Although both areas are widely researched in the nonprofit sector, empirical motivation research conducted in schools and hospitals is certainly not extensive. Nevertheless, based on these limited research findings, we derive potential hypotheses for future research in schools and hospitals.

This article describes the development and validation of the Governance Self-Assessment Checklist (GSAC). The GSAC was designed to assist boards of directors of nonprofit and public sector organizations to identify strengths and weaknesses in the governance of their organizations, educate board members about the essentials of good governance, and improve their governance practices. The instrument comprises 144 items organized into twelve subscales. The results of the study indicated that the subscales have excellent internal consistency reliability, exhibit good criterion-related validity, and are able to discriminate between stronger and weaker aspects of board functioning. The relative strengths and weaknesses in board effectiveness were identified, and the implications of the findings for the assessment of board effectiveness and field applications of the GSAC were discussed. P UBLIC TRUST in boards of directors depends on transparent governance structures and processes and clear accountability to stakeholders. The assessment of board performance is essential for demonstrating accountability and generating public trust. The establishment of causal links between effective boards and strong

After giving an overview of the development of social accounting, this article presents two models of social accounting for nonprofits: the community social return on investment model and the expanded value-added statement. The discussion focuses on the process for establishing a comparative market value for nonmarket social outputs. The authors discuss these models and the comparative market value in relation to social accounting, an academic field that has evolved as part of a critique of financial accounting, especially its failure to analyze the impact of the organization on society and the natural environment. For the most part, scholars have not related social accounting to nonprofits. This article attempts to draw nonprofits into the field of social accounting. Both models address the social impact of nonprofits by including social inputs and outputs that accounting statements normally exclude.

The article describes how the social cooperative has become instrumental in the expansion of the social economy in Italy. It reports the contribution these associations have made to broadening the concept and parameters of volunteer organizations, providing basic social welfare services and integrating many disadvantaged people into the active society. By virtue of their ability to activate wider social projects, this type of social enterprise could be of interest and relevance to other countries (following this example, in 2001 the French government created the Sociétés coopératives d'intérét collectif), but they call for adequate competencies and protection under specific laws because, on the whole, they are too small and depended on public contributions.

The degree to which strategic action is related to changes in the perceived uncertainty of income from major types ofjmders was examined for a panel of nonprofit organizations. Uncertainty was found to be a pervasive phenomenon. Nonprofits in some parts of the sector reported increases in uncertainty over time, while those in other parts reported decreases. The use of new revenue, legitimation, or retrenchment strategies was associated with the reduction of uncertainly for some types of nonprofit organuations but not for others. HIS ARTICLE reports on an exploratory analysis with three purposes: to examine the degree to which nonprofit admin-T istrators perceived uncertainty in the funds flowing from their major funder type between 1980-1984 and between 1984-1988, to determine the degree to which various types of organizational strategies were adopted during these same time periods, and to explore factors that may be associated with the effective use of strategies to reduce uncertainty. These clearly are important questions for both practitioners and academics. Moreover, they are important given the fact that relatively little research has shed light on how the financial environment for nonprofits in the middle to late 1980s compared with that of the early 19805, which were the subject of extensive study (Salamon, 1987; Wolpert and Reiner, 1985).

This analysis examines rates of international volunteering among various demographic groups in the United States using data from the 2005 Current Population Survey. We use logistic regression analyses to address the importance of inclusion. Those most likely to serve overseas are white, highly educated, young, foreign-born individuals without dependent children in the home and not employed full-time. As a type of volunteering implemented primarily through the nonprofit sector, these findings suggest implications for recruitment and retention of volunteers who serve abroad.

This article describes mortality patterns for nonprofit organizations in a major U.S. metropolitan area between 1980 and 1988. Twenty percent of the nonprofits in a panel ceased operations during this period. Mortality rates were found to vary widely. In some instances, high mortality was found in parts of the sector that were growing rapidly. Overall, nonprofits that ceased to operate were younger and smaller, used fewer strategies to attract funders, and had less diversified income streams than survivors. These patterns also varied substantially. The results point to the drawbacks of using limited or commonsense information and the necessity of theory-based research.

This study examines stipended volunteers-those volunteers who engage freely in a helping activity within a formal organizational structure but receive some type of remuneration for their services. Based on a sample of AmeriCorps members from three states, we identify several motivational, demographic, and individual factors that affect retention of stipended volunteers. We conclude that retention depends more on instrumental career-related factors than on altruistic motivation or meaningfulness of the service.

for their generous support. Acknowledgements: We extend our gratitude to the Boy Scouts Crossroads of America Council for their data access. We also thank Beth Gazley for comments on an earlier version of this paper, Megan Bowers for her support in data cleaning, and Charity Scott for her help in manuscript preparation. Finally, we also thank our anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback during the review process.

Results from a survey of nonprofit human service agencies in Arizona are presented. Most agencies reported steady or declining revenues, increased competition with other agencies, and rising demand for services from clients who cannot pay. The strategies used to adapt to these changes rangedfrom small-scale productivity enhancements to responses involving a complete restructuring of the agency as well as cutbacks in client services. The discussion focuses on the implications of the resultsfor the continued viability of these agencies and their ability to maintain their commitments to poor clients. ONPROFIT agencies are a critical component of the human services delivery system in the United States. The central role of N these agencies has developed out of religious, philanthropic, and charitable motivations that have deep historical roots in American society . However, ongoing changes in the basic structure of the American social welfare system have begun to have far-reaching effects within the voluntary sector, especially on nonprofit human service agencies. These changes include resource constraints brought on by government retrenchmenc; movement toward entitlement programs for the middle class and away from categorical aid programs for the poor; the privatization of service delivery, especially through increases in government purchase-of-service contracting; demographic shifts among the aged, women, families, and innercity poor; and a shift from cultural to economic explanations of poverty (Safamon, 1989). As a result of these trends, nonprofit provid-Note: An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual conference of the Association of Voluntary Action Scholars in Seattle, Washington, September 1989. The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable assistance of Jackie Dierks and Sandra Jones-McClintic in data collection and coding. Partial support for the study was provided by an assistantship award from the Graduate College of Arizona State University.

Public and nonprofit organizations need to make strategic choices about where to invest their resources. They also need to expose hidden managerial assumptions and lack of adequate knowledge that prevent the attainment of consensus in strategic decision-making. The approach we developed and tested in the field used a dynamic, three-dimensional model that tracks individual programs in an organization's portfolio on their contribution to mission, money, and merit. The first dimension measures whether the organization is doing the right things; the second, whether it is doing things right financially; and the third, whether it doing things right in terms of quality. Senior managers provide their own evaluations of the organization's programs. Both the consensus view and the variation in individual assessments contribute to an improved managerial understanding of the organization's current situation and to richer discussions in strategic decision-making. In field tests, this visual model proved to be a useful and powerful tool for illuminating underlying assumptions and variations in knowledge among managers facing the complex, multidimensional trade-offs needed in strategic decision-making.

Facing a decline in the number of hours donated to nonprofit organizations, volunteer coordinators must strive to determine the most effective strategies for retaining volunteers. Relationship management theory provides a framework to gauge the well-being of an organization's relationship with its stakeholders. Through surveys administered to 317 teenage volunteers at three library systems, this study found that of four factors—trust, commitment, satisfaction, and control mutuality—trust had the strongest ability to predict intent to continue volunteering. Further analysis revealed that trust could be enhanced by including teenagers in work groups throughout the organization, seeking their input on organizational decisions, and ensuring they receive formal and informal organizational communications.

The volunteer management literature suggests that the most effective means of recruitment is personal asking. However, agencies that apply this method do not report the expected success in volunteer recruitment. Often they face the volunteer recruitment fallacy: those people assumed to be interested in volunteering do not necessarily volunteer. Based on the literature of shyness or social anxiety and on empirical observations, this article suggests that social anxiety often deters volunteering by new recruits. We hypothesize that people with greater levels of social anxiety will be less likely to volunteer. Furthermore, we hypothesize that people with high social anxiety will prefer to give monetary support to worthy causes rather than volunteer their time, and if they do choose to volunteer, they will do so alongside friends. Our hypotheses are supported based on the findings from a large-scale nonrandom sample in North America. We suggest how to avoid the volunteer recruitment fallacy by creating a personal environment in which high-social-anxiety recruits feel safe and accepted. By removing the fear of being negatively judged by strangers as they enter the agency and creating a more personal approach, new recruits may have a higher probability of becoming long-term and consistent volunteers. Disciplines Disciplines Social Work Comments Comments

influence the information-gathering strategies that he or she turns to prior to donating to a nonprofit. The data for the study come from a telephone survey of residents in a large county in southern California (n = 1,002). The sample was selected using random-digit-dialing technology and a computer-assisted telephone interviewing system. A series of binomial logit models revealed that information costs significantly influenced the information-gathering strategies individuals turned to in order to learn about nonprofit performance prior to making a donation. Results also revealed that greater confidence in nonprofits did not lead individuals to forgo efforts to obtain information on nonprofit performance altogether. The findings from this study suggest that it is important for nonprofit administrators to recognize, and then take into account, that not all individuals will rely on the same information sources when seeking to learn about nonprofit performance.

Volunteers frequently serve public and nonprofit organizations, among them libraries, parks and recreation departments, social service groups, and religious organizations. Research on volunteers and volunteerism traditionally focuses on antecedents to volunteering and outcomes for volunteers. In this study, we attempt to build on the existing literature by examining the volunteer experience from the paid employee's vantage point. Using a sample of employees who work alongside volunteers in animal care organizations (N = 270), we examine how employees described the volunteers with whom they interact. Although these assessments were generally positive, there was considerable variability. This appears to be explained, in part, by each organization's volunteer resources management practices. Results also indicate that employees who reported less satisfactory experiences with volunteers also reported being more stressed, overworked, and less committed to the organization, and having a greater intention to quit. Importantly, these results held up even after controlling for general job satisfaction. Implications of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.

This article uses a social return on investment (SROI) methodology to analyze the social impact of a social enterprise offering a job and skills training program to an unemployed, largely female population. The social enterprise is based in Toronto (Canada) and run by a nonprofit agency dedicated to the advancement and empowerment of women, primarily immigrants, through access to employment. We focus our analysis on a job and skills training program that provides clients with the skills and tools that they need to successfully seek employment in their efforts to (re-)enter the Canadian labor market. Our goal is to determine the tangible and intangible program outcomes by applying and testing the SROI methodology. 2 Unemployment has severe consequences for individuals and families because it may lead to negative experiences of social exclusion (Schmid and Gazier 2002) and life in poverty (Gallie, Paugam, and Jacobs 2003). However, gaining access to the labor market can be extremely difficult for unemployed individuals, especially for certain marginalized subgroups such as women (International Labor Office 2010; O'Connor 2000) and first-generation immigrants (Zietsma 2007). For women, both individual factors, such as taking care of the family and child rearing, and structural factors, such as welfare state regulations, hinder their success in the labor market (Stier, Lewin-Epstein, and Braun 2001). Successfully accessing the labor market is even more challenging for female immigrants, especially women of color, leading to frustrating migration and job search experiences (Creese and Wiebe 2012; Tastsoglou and Preston 2012). For instance, first-generation immigrants face various discriminatory barriers to full integration into a host society. These barriers include, among others, adapting to a new language, difficulty accessing services, and the devaluation of existing skills and undervaluation of credentials from their countries of origin (Aydemir and Skuterud 2005; Handy and Greenspan 2009; Reitz 2001; Walk et al. 2014). Social enterprises-defined as organizations that aim to achieve a social goal by breaking even (or even making a profit) through the sale of services (Quarter, Ryan, and Chan 2015)-have been regarded as valuable organizational venues for mitigating social exclusion (Kerlin 2010), for example, through the provision of skill and employment training programs to unemployed individuals (Spear and Bidet 2005; Vidal 2005). Investment in skills-training services that target the development of job skills for immigrants and other marginalized groups can facilitate a successful integration into sustainable employment (Cohen-Goldner and Eckstein 2010). Skills-training programs have benefits beyond the acquisition of skills. For participants, these programs boost self-esteem and self-efficacy (Creed, Bloxsome, and Johnston 2001). For employers, they offer increased diversity in the workforce (Kirsh et al. 2010), and such programs create an improved sense of belonging to the community for participants

This article examines women entrepreneurs in the nonprofit sector. Entrepreneurial activity attracts certain kinds of individuals. Such self-selection is not a random event but is influenced by personal characteristics as well as socioeconomic and cultural factors. This article examines women entrepreneurs in a particular segment of the nonprofit sector in India to determine which factors influence such self-selection. Our research confirms findings by other scholars that nonprofit entrepreneurs receive a high payoff from promoting social causes. Furthermore, we find that previous experience in the sector, beliefs, culture, social class, education, and family background also play an important role. We explore some policy implications of our findings.

Many useful survey instruments have been developed in the forprofit management arena, but they often require varying levels of adaptation for relevant application in the nonprofit context. This research note first explains key steps in the process for adapting and testing a survey instrument. It then illustrates how each step should be applied and reported using a case study adaptation of Hodgkinson' s (1992) strategic locus of control instrument for nonprofit use.

This study analyzes the implications of government-contract funding on the staffing pattern of a nonprofit agency, the Canadian Red Cross, Toronto Region. Furthermore, the study explains the implications of the staffing pattern on services and on the agency' s organization. Staffing is one area that the literature on nonprofit organizations has not adequately addressed.

Investigations of the structures of multinational organizations have been primarily limited to the multinational for-profitfom, while examinations of alternative structural arrangements of nonprofit organizations have been focused on single-nation organizations. This article draws on the extensive descriptive literature on nunprofits and the theoretical literature on the structural determinants of organizations to make predictions about the potential range of structures of multinational nunprofits. The authors show that local resource density and environmental variation are key factors in determining multinational nonprofit structures. They conclude that nonprofit organizations operating in multiple national settings are likely to be structured as umbrella organizations that act as an additional layer of hierarchy for multiple indigenous organizations, and that unitmy, hierarchical corporate structures are not likely to be found in these organizations. ENEWED attention has recently been given to alternative structural arrangements within organizations, with a special focus R on the relationships between corporate parents and businesslevel subunits. This interest has led to analysis of network configurations within single organizations (internal networks) and across organizations (external networks) (

We examine how nonprofit, public, and for-profit establishments vary in the provision of health benefits and insurance and performance-based incentives using the 2002 National Organization Survey of establishments in the United States. We found that in comparison to for-profit firms, both nonprofit and public organizations are less likely to use performance-based incentives, although they provide their employees with better health benefits and insurance. Sectoral differences in the provision of health benefits and insurance and use of performancebased incentives persist after controlling for correlates of sector that predict these outcomes, including establishment size, independence of establishment, market competition, establishment age, and unionization. We also found trade-offs between the provision of health benefits and insurance and use of performance-based incentives. Our results are generally consistent with the prediction from agency theory and also consistent with a view that

Recent changes in Australia, such as the new public management and national competition policy, have affected the way that human services are provided and have complicated the role of volunteer coordinators. However, because volunteers are free to choose their level of contribution, it is the volunteers' perspective that is the ultimate yardstick against which their coordination is assessed. The aim of the research examined here was a deeper understanding of women volunteers' and their coordinators' views of their work. The research was conducted within a qualitative paradigm, employing individual and focus group interviews. The analysis identified eight areas of concern for volunteers around their management. The analysis of the coordinators' interviews revealed three coordination styles-horizontal, nurturing, and managerial-of which the managerial was most in conflict with the volunteers' perspective. T HE RESEARCH presented here focuses on volunteer management from the perspective of both the volunteers and their coordinators. In a survey of nonprofit administrators, found that after fundraising and grant writing, volunteer administration was the third most frequently reported area of training need. Furthermore, it is unlikely that those training needs can be addressed by reference to texts designed for profit-driven companies. The freedom of a volunteer to leave a position without financial loss is the most significant difference between their management and the management of paid workers. Not only can volunteers leave entirely, but they can also refuse to do particular tasks or work at particular times. The coordinator does not have the control that is assumed in forprofit management texts. Organizational attempts to control

Professional associations are operating in a context of uncertainty and change, with which their traditional governance structures struggle to manage. After describing this context and presenting a brief overview of relevant governance literature, a project aimed at supporting the redesign of governance structures and procedures among five professional associations in the United Kingdom is outlined. Three specific governance issues are examined: size of councils (council is the term used for a governing body of a U.K. professional association), their composition in relation to electoral processes, and the development of inner councils, or executive boards, within councils. Finally, we present a normative model, the cupped hands model, that has arisen from the research. This model offers a possible means of balancing the representation required by their status as membership associations with the requirement that professional associations become more strategic and proactive.

This article presents a cuse study of merging among nonprofit organizations that provide social and community services. The study sheds light on the dynamics and problems of merging nonprofit organizations, whose espoused ideology focuses on promoting the well-being of their clients. The author describes and analyzes a merger in metropolitan Jerusalem, Israel, and highlights the potential problems that may ultimately undermine its success. This merger is the outcome of an ongoing power and political struggle. The analysis focuses on the organizational ideologies and culture as well as the strategies and structure of the merging organizations. In addition, the author deals with the underlying motivesfor merging, the driving and restrainingforces, and the implications of merging nonprofit community services organizations with other social and human services organizations. HE strong wave of mergers, acquisitions, and consolidations has reached the area of nonprofit organizations (NPOs).

This study explores the attitudes of leaders of religious congregations toward computers. We uncover attitudes toward information (and thus toward computers) that are different from those reported for leaders in other organizational contexts. In short, clergy felt that systematically collecting and storing information and trying to serve as many people as possible could distract them from what is distinctive about their jobs—that the job in a religious congregation is accomplished through personal rather than transactional relationships.

Despite portrayals of gambling as a social vice, charitable gaming is big business in the United States and globally. While many nonprofit organizations sponsor charitable gaming events, such as bingo nights for their members and communities, to raise both friends and funds for their organizations, charitable gaming operations receive little attention from researchers. This article focuses on charitable bingo and contrasts bingo's often folkloric background with the contemporary realities of charitable gaming. Our exploratory analysis offers reasons that bingo deserves study and calls researchers' and practitioners' attention to the scope and some of the implications of bingo operations. We focus on the characteristics of nonprofit organizations reporting bingo revenue in Indiana. Our findings suggest that while some nonprofits may be using bingo to raise much-needed funds or provide a social and recreational outlet for organization or community members, bingo is an uncertain financial pursuit for most organizations. We use a descriptive case study of bingo in Indiana to explore and illustrate the issues and questions raised in the article and to set up an agenda for future research on charitable bingo.

This article examines the relationship between donations to the American Red Cross and the profits, sales, costs, and prices of health and safety classes offered by local chapters. Two important questions are examined: Do profits from sales of services “crowd out” donations to local chapters of the American Red Cross? Do managers respond to changes in donations by changing prices, output, or costs of saleable services? The results suggest that nonprofit managers should pay close attention to the potential impact on donations of any change in the prices charged for saleable goods and services, and that profits, costs, and prices of services are influenced by donations.

Detecting agency problems is an important task when assessing the effectiveness of a nonprofit organization's governance. A first step is to examine the objectives of principals and agents and determine whether there is a systematic difference between them. Using a discrete choice experiment, we identify the objectives of board chairpersons (principals) and headmasters (agents) of Flemish nonprofit schools. We find systematic differences between the two groups. Of the seven possible objectives set out in the experiment, six are relevant for both headmasters and board chairpersons. For four of these, the preferences of both groups differ significantly. Whereas ideological values play an important role for both the board and the headmaster, they are significantly more important for the board. Both parties dislike having a large number of pupils, and the disutility is larger for the board. With respect to job satisfaction and pupil satisfaction, we find the opposite: while the board is prepared to give up pupil and job satisfaction in favor of the other objectives, these two objectives score very high on the priority list of the headmasters.

In this study, nine roles and responsibilities of boards of directors in nonprofit organizations in Israel are examined and perceptions of these roles and responsibilities by chairpersons of the boards and the executive directors are compared. Four groupings of board roles were found: senior human resource management, maintenance of relationships with the task environment, policymaking, and fiscal management and fundraising. The findings show that in most organizations boards fulfill all these roles and play a significant role in decision making. A significant consensus exists between chairpersons and executive directors in respect to most of the boards' roles, whereas significant differences in perceptions were found in respect to financial matters and maintenance of relationships with the task environment.

This research discusses the findings of a qualitative study that assesses the in-depth interviews of the Executive Directors and Board Members from 13 merger cases of nonprofit organizations and the post-merger influences on the integration of those new nonprofits. As a part of the integration, there is a particular focus on the identity of the nonprofits as they go through the merger which results in an identity change of absorption, preservation, or creation. Mergers cannot be discussed without also analyzing the effect of these changes on the nonprofit leaders of these organizations, including the retention rate. Who can benefit from the research? • Understand that changes are not just financially-based, there is importance on relationships and understanding the overall greater good of this organizational change.

Nonprofit organizations operate in tumultuous times characterized by constrained funding, increased competition, and greater demand for social services. Existing bases of intangible and tangible assets often are insufficient to fulfill service missions. These organizations appear to be responding by joining forces and restructuring to better accommodate diminished resources. Relatively little is known about the reorganization strategies being employed.

American nonprofit organizations first developed in the nineteenth century as the organizational instruments through which Americans put their First Amendment freedoms of religion and political beZief into practice. For one hundred years American nonprofits were held accountable by relatively small, compact communities of people who shared religious or other highly defined beliefs and values. In the twentieth century, many nonprofit organizations have grown very large and have adopted a scientiJic, general-sewice-to-the-community ethos. The legal, institutional, and cultural ideas and practices through which traditional nonprofts were, and are still, held accountable no longer seem to work equally well for the large5 more universal nonprofits of the late twentieth century.

Nonprofit centers are organized to house individual nonprofits "under one roof " to enhance their efficiency and effectiveness and to offer shared services to diminish administrative load. This post-occupancy tenant satisfaction survey of three such US centers represents the first empirical analysis of such organizations. We find that nonprofit tenants (N = 118) initially co-located due to the leasing price and the new physical environment (free parking and safety). Nearly all nonprofit tenants wished to remain at their nonprofit centers, largely for the same reasons that brought them there. The article then discusses strategies to achieve the high response rates attained in this study. It concludes with some implications for nonprofit centers, communities, and nonprofit staff-now and in the future, including lower occupancy costs and enhanced quality of nonprofits' workspace.

URFING the net, looking for nonprofit management resources, I confirmed my suspicions about the frequently asked questions S (FAQs) regarding boards of trustees, such as "What are the duties of the board?" and "Who should I have on my board?" Most of the questions mirror the ones I entertain while running workshops and giving talks. A John Carver, or other nonprofit or board consultant, might find less difficulty in answering these questions than I do. Out here in the field (research field, that is) the search for generic answers becomes much more involved. For many years, I have been confirming my initial beliefs that the answers to questions about boards' roles, duties, compositions, and structures are more likely to begin with "It depends . . ." than with "All boards should. . . ." To get

This study builds on an earlier one that examined the degree of interchangeability between volunteers and paid employees in nonprofit organizations. In the current study, we surveyed 836 nonprofits in Canada to understand what factors determine the degree of interchange between paid employees and volunteers, bearing in mind that this interchange can go in two directions: paid employees for volunteers and volunteers for paid employees. We found the degree of interchange to be widespread and in both directions. One of the most important predictors of the likelihood of interchange was the number of full-time employees, suggesting that interchangeability occurs less frequently in organizations with a larger number of employees than in those with fewer employees. Religious congregations and organizations with workload increases were more likely to interchange tasks among volunteers and paid staff.

The historical record makes abundantly clear the extent to which the survival of philanthropy depends on the vitality and independence of scholarship.-Peter Dobkin Hall (1992, p. 3) ESPITE the crucial contributions of nonprofits to American society over time, a horrendous lack of documentation has Dimpaired serious study in the field until the last two decades. With the recently burgeoning scholarly interest in all aspects of nonprofits, bibliographies such as Philanthropy Index, the statistical data bases of the Foundation Center and INDEPENDENT SECTOR, and new print sources have begun to fill this dearth (Olcott, 1994; Hodgkinson and Toppe, 1991; Renz, 1991; Zimmerman, 1994). Susan Ellis (1985, p. 11) described the research needs in this area by saying that "everything is left to do." A decade later, despite the recent scholarly activity, much still remains undone. This article does not provide a magic list of sources or articulate a search strategy for sudden success. Instead, it attempts to provoke discussion about scholarship in the area of nonprofits, to encourage frustrated scholars, and to stimulate action to help fill critical gaps in information sources and within archival collections. My suggestions are based on experience with historical and contemporary research in nonprofit organizations and social movements. I explore the less obvious avenues to information about nonprofits, discuss the folkloric nature of organizational history, question the resistance of some nonprofits to research, and address search quandaries. The first and fundamental research problem involves answering basic questions. What kind of group is this? Who founded it? What are its policies? What functions does it perform? What has