Motor Control

Three phase voltage source inverters supply variable voltage and frequency to alternating current machines. Pulse width modulation (PWM) is often used to transfer supply voltage from direct current (DC) into three-phase alternating current (AC) for operation of three-phase AC machines. Space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) is a computationally controlled PWM technique applied in industry for its efficient use of direct current voltage, low switching loss, low computational complexity, and high flexibility. We collected information from available sources in order to understand SVPWM and the particular qualities this type of PWM presents. An intuitive approach section, followed by space vector representation, mathematical reasoning, and modulation strategy sections clearly present information to the reader. The result is a well-rounded understanding of the SVPWM technique. SVPWM high switching rates lead undesirable total harmonic distortion rates. Research into methods of reducing this total harmonic distortion is suggested.

This research was funded by, and implemented within, a UK national research organisation, while the author was the KE and Impact Evaluation Manager responsible for assessing impact on a £15m UK government-funded research programme.

This work was also submitted as the authors MBA dissertation which was accepted and awarded in 2009.

ABSTRACT: A methodology and methods ‘toolbox’ is proposed for conducting impact research and assessment from within research programmes. The emphasis is upon how to clarify and assess the wider impacts from the early stages onwards.

The approach explicitly acknowledges, and attempts to address, the known issues and challenges of impact assessment while drawing upon the resources and opportunities available to research managers and researchers within such programmes.

The study has two triangulating foundations. Firstly, it examines the academic literature to help identify and design the pilot methodology and methods. Secondly it trials these in a real programme to both test and improve them.

The study was conducted over one year within one leading UK research organisation, where two research programmes (and around 60 research projects of £15m total value) were being assessed for their impacts. The study draws upon actual impact management experience and reflection, prospective (ex ante) and retrospective (ex post) assessments, participatory contributions from leading researchers undergoing assessment, and consultation with external users. The findings of this study outline the pilot and its first iteration. Recommendations are made for improvement to the methodology and methods.

A subsequent follow-on bid to UK government incorporating the impacts identified from implementing this methodology, successfully led to a further £15m of government funding.

It is expected the pilot methodology and methods will be applicable to other organisations, conducting and funding such research programmes, required to research and assess the wider research impacts.

Although primary focus of implemetation trials was upon research in physical sciences, technology, high-tech engineering, computing/IT, and environment, the wider literature study, the methodology design and justification, the methods proposed and used, and the resulting general recommendations and lessons are expected to apply more broadly to many other research areas, where the impact is to be found more widely in the society, economy, government or public sector or within organizations, policies, professions or the public.

Interest in this work is expected from research programme managers, impact managers and assessors, management consultants advising in this area, and government funding managers, all seeking to embed a developing approach to understand, capture, and enhance wider impact.

This project aims to develop a BLDC motor controller and assemble it by using friction drive technique to the bicycle. One focus of this objective was designing a motor controller and traction system easy to apply on bicycles. A number of commercial motor control techniques have been investigated for feasibility along with the relevant theory behind controlling BLDC motors. The scope of this project covers power systems, feedback control of brushless DC (BLDC) motors, and input signal conditioning. Another focus of this objective was designing a traction system, which can made by printing the mechanical part with a 3D printer. This process makes easy and flexible to assemble the system on different bicycles. Overall, this project provides the core tractive system while providing a solid basis for future projects.

El motor de c. c. es una máquina eléctrica que transforma la energía eléctrica de c. c. en energía mecánica rotatoria. Está formado por un rotor que contiene el devanado inducido y un estator donde se instala el devanado inductor. El rotor se construye de láminas de material ferromagnético aisladas una de otra por capa de barniz o papel fino. El estator está formado por una carcasa construida en muchas ocasiones en una sola pieza, sobre los que se colocan núcleos polares.

This paper presents the implementation of motor speed control using Proportional Integral Derrivative (PID) controller using Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Proportional Integral Derrivative (PID) controller is the technique used to actively control the speed of the motor. An AC motor is used in the research together with the PLC, encoder and Proface touch screen. The model of the PLC that has been used in this project is OMRON CJIG-CPU42P where this PLC has a build in loop control that can be made the ladder diagram quite simple using function block in CX-process tools. A complete experimental analysis of the technique in terms of system response is presented. Comparative assessment of the impact of Proportional, Integral and Derivative in the controller on the system performance is presented and discussed.

The aim behind the development of the project is to limit the current at starting of motor and to develop the high starting torque. There are different methods of starting of 3-phase Slip-Ring induction Motor. However, we selected the rotor resistance method of control for Starting the Induction Motor. Here a Programmable Logic Controller is used which will be programmed as per our need. We have designed a control panel and programmed the PLC according to our need. The motor starts with high rotor resistance and as time elapse the rotor resistance will be shorted and the motor runs at rated speed. The resistance has been cut from the rotor in three parts in three different time intervals. The process of management of time and controlling of relays is the function of the PLC. Depending on PLC output, the relays will get shorted and the resistance will be removed from the rotor terminal.

Component and subsystem models used to evaluate the performance of a low-lift cooling system are described. An air-cooled chiller, a hydronic radiant distribution system, variable-speed control, and peak-shifting controls are modeled. A variable-speed compressor that operates over 20:1 speed range and pressure ratios ranging from one to six is at the heart of the chiller. Condenser fan and chilled-water pump motors have independent speed controls. The load-side distribution is modeled from the refrigerant side of the evaporator to the conditioned zone as a single subsystem controlled by chilled-water flow rate for a specified instantaneous cooling load. Performance of the same chiller when operating with an all-air distribution system is also modeled. The compressor, condenser fan, and chilled-water pump motor speeds that achieve maximum coefficient of performance (COP) at a given condition are solved at each point on a grid of load and outdoor temperature. A variable-speed dehumidification subsystem is modeled and simulated as part of a dedicated outdoor air system to condition the ventilation air. A companion paper evaluates the annual cooling system energy use and potential energy savings to be gained by integrating radiant cooling, cool storage, and variable-speed compressor and transport motor controls. P.R. Armstrong is an associate professor of mechanical engineering at Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. W. Jiang and D. Winiarski are senior research scientists and S. Katipamula is a staff scientist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA. L.K. Norford is a professor of building technology and R.A. Willingham is a graduate student in mechanical engineering at

Largely aided by the findings of the so-called ‘mirror neurons’ the attention to motor activity in action observation has exploded over the last two decades. The idea that we internally ‘mirror’ an observed action by covertly reproducing a version of it has lead to a new strand of implicit simulation theories of action understanding. The basic idea of this sort of simulation theory is that perception of others actions automatically activate our own covert action representations, and then that we can use this shared action representation to understand various aspects of the observed action and possibly infer the goal and/or intentions of the observed agent or maybe predict upcoming actions. There is some disagreement among researchers and theorists as to the function of motor ‘simulation’. It is debated whether it serves as the basis for low-level ‘mind-reading’, i.e. ascription of intentions and various mental states to others (Gallese 2003, 2004, 2007. Gallese & Goldman 1998, Goldman in press, Hurley 2005) or whether the function of the simulation is purely related to understanding the action itself (Jeannerod 2006) or maybe related to anticipating upcoming actions (Kilner et al 2004, Csibra 2005, Prinz 2006). 
What seems to be assumed in most of these simulation theories is that the default role of the motor system in social perception is to ‘mirror’ the observed action or that it is only related to the observed action and not my own action motives and plans. It is these basic assumptions of the passivity of motor resonance that I would like to challenge. The question is whether it is misleading to conceptualize motor resonance simply as a mirroring simulation where we covertly ‘echo’ the observed action? Many studies of the functional properties of mirror neurons (MN) and motor facilitation during perception seem to point to a more complex role of the motor system in action perception (di Pellegrino 1992, Gallese et al 1996, Rizzolati & Craighero 2004). This has recently led to some proposals trying to reinterpret the function of motor activity during action perception and in social situations from a simple mirroring process to an anticipatory process (Kilner et al 2004, Csibra 2005, Prinz 2006) – or simply to abandon the idea of simulation altogether (Gallagher 2007). I think these are interesting proposals, but inspired by historic approaches to motor resonance and recent studies I would like to venture a hypothesis of an even more proactive, context and motivation dependent role of motor activity during action perception (Newman-Norlund et al. 2007, Schie et al. In press, Cheng et al. 2007, Keysers & Perrett 2004, 502). Motor resonance during object perception is by many researchers thought of in terms of affordances; i.e. what the object affords the observer to do (Grèzes et al. 2003). My question is why we should not – albeit extra social levels of complexity - see motor resonance during social perception in a similar way, as potential action sketches ‘afforded’ by own present motivational, senori-motor and perceptual situation. My point is not that we never ‘simulate’ or covertly imitate observed actions, but rather that it is questionable why we should think of this as the default process in normal interactive social contexts. Covert imitation might only take place during special cases of action observation where we exactly take on a passive spectator attitude, and that we therefore might need a broader theory of motor resonance that also explains normal active and interactive cases of action perception. Accordingly, I suggest that experimental paradigms with single observers in one-way social situations often carry an ‘imitation bias’, and that we are in dire need of more research of actual interactive social perception. I conclude that theories of motor resonance in social perception as a passive ‘mirroring’ or low-level simulation are faced with serious empirical challenges, and that the motor system might serve a much more proactive role in social cognition than previously thought.

Component and subsystem models used to evaluate the performance of a low-lift cooling system are described. An air-cooled chiller, a hydronic radiant distribution system, variable-speed control, and peak-shifting controls are modeled. A variable-speed compressor that operates over 20:1 speed range and pressure ratios ranging from one to six is at the heart of the chiller. Condenser fan and chilled-water pump motors have independent speed controls. The load-side distribution is modeled from the refrigerant side of the evaporator to the conditioned zone as a single subsystem controlled by chilled-water flow rate for a specified instantaneous cooling load. Performance of the same chiller when operating with an all-air distribution system is also modeled. The compressor, condenser fan, and chilled-water pump motor speeds that achieve maximum coefficient of performance (COP) at a given condition are solved at each point on a grid of load and outdoor temperature. A variable-speed dehumidification subsystem is modeled and simulated as part of a dedicated outdoor air system to condition the ventilation air. A companion paper evaluates the annual cooling system energy use and potential energy savings to be gained by integrating radiant cooling, cool storage, and variable-speed compressor and transport motor controls. P.R. Armstrong is an associate professor of mechanical engineering at Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. W. Jiang and D. Winiarski are senior research scientists and S. Katipamula is a staff scientist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA. L.K. Norford is a professor of building technology and R.A. Willingham is a graduate student in mechanical engineering at

2012 ABSTRAK Motor Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) atau motor tanpa sikat arus searah merupakan salah satu jenis motor DC yang biasa digunakan untuk sepeda listrik, motor listrik, maupun mobil listrik. Penggunaan motor BLDC lebih banyak digunakan untuk kendaraan dibandingkan dengan jenis motor DC yang lain dikarenakan banyak keunggulan yang dimiliki motor BLDC terutama dalam melakukan kontrol yang lebih akurat. Agar motor BLDC dapat dikendalikan secara akurat, maka dibutuhkan suatu alat untuk menggerakan dan mengendalikan putaran motor BLDC yang biasa disebut dengan penggerak daya atau driver motor BLDC. Driver motor BLDC merupakan suatu kesatuan rangkaian elektronika daya dan untuk melakukan pengendalian kecepatannya dibutuhkan rangkaian kontrolnya. Setiap kendaraan dengan motor BLDC sebagai tenaganya, pasti membutuhkan driver tersebut. Rangkaian daya atau driver ini terdiri atas 6 buah MOSFET yang berfungsi sebagai penyakelaran dan kemudian menyuplai koil pada motor BLDC, dan dibuat dengan bentuk rangkaian jembatan penuh. Akan tetapi, Ada 6 tahapan putaran untuk membuat motor BLDC bergerak, 6 tahapan tersebut dilakukan dengan cara mengubah waktu penyakelaran pada 3 buah MOSFET active high dan 3 buah MOSFET active low secara bergiliran. Untuk mengatur perubahan waktu penyakelaran tersebut, diperlukan rangkaian kontrolnya dengan menggunakan teknik PWM (pulse width modulation) sebagai sinyal penggerak motor BLDC yang menggunakan mikrokontroler produk ATMEL yang terhubung langsung dengan 6 buah MOSFET dan dilengkapi dengan optocoupler pada masing-masing MOSFET. Kemudian, keluaran dari driver motor BLDC sebanyak 3 fasa atau 3 buah kabel U,V, dan W langsung terhubung ke 3 buah koil pada motor BLDC. Lalu, dari motor BLDC tersebut akan memberikan kedudukan atau posisi putaran motor kepada mikrokontroler dengan menggunakan sensor hall yang ada pada motor BLDC agar motor dapat berputar ke tahapan selanjutnya.

Mirror neuron research has come a long way since the early 90’s, and many theorists are now stressing the heterogeneity and complexity of the sensorimotor properties of fronto-parietal circuits. However, core aspects of the initial ‘mirror mechanism’ theory, i.e. the idea of a symmetric encapsulated mirroring function translating sensory action perceptions into motor formats, still appears to be shaping much of the debate. This article challenges the empirical plausibility of the sensorimotor segregation implicit in the original mirror metaphor. It is proposed instead that the teleological organization found in the broader fronto-parietal circuits might be inherently sensorimotor. Thus the idea of an independent ‘purely perceptual’ goal understanding process is questioned. Further, it is hypothesized that the often asymmetric, heterogeneous and contextually modulated mirror and canonical neurons support a function of multisensory mapping and tracking of the perceiving agents affordance space. Such a shift in the interpretative framework offers a different theoretical handle on how sensorimotor processes might ground various aspects of intentional action choice and social cognition. Mirror neurons would under the proposed “social affordance model” be seen as dynamic parts of larger circuits, which support tracking of currently shared and competing action possibilities. These circuits support action selection processes—but also our understanding of the options and action potentials that we and perhaps others have in the affordance space. In terms of social cognition ‘mirror’ circuits might thus help us understand not only the intentional actions others are actually performing—but also what they could have done, did not do and might do shortly.

The discovery of so-called ‘mirror neurons’ - found to respond both to own actions and the observation of similar actions performed by others - has been enormously influential in the cognitive sciences and beyond. Given the self-other symmetry these neurons have been hypothesized as underlying a ‘mirror mechanism’ that lets us share representations and thereby ground core social cognitive functions from intention understanding to linguistic abilities and empathy. I argue that mirror neurons are important for very different reasons. Rather than a symmetric ubiquitous or context- independent mechanism, I propose that these neurons are part of broader sensorimotor circuits, which help us navigate and predict the social affordance space that we meet others in. To develop both the critical and positive project I analyze the interpretive choices and the debate surrounding the mirror neuron research and show how the field is marred by highly questionable assumptions about respectively motor and social cognition. The discovery of mirror neurons - and the sensorimotor circuits of which these neurons are a part – actually empirically challenge many of these tacit assumptions. Findings of sensorimotor goal representations at levels of abstraction well beyond actual sensory information and kinetic movements challenge the idea of motor cognition as primarily output production. Additionally, the focus on 3rd person mindreading of hidden mental states is misguiding the field of social cognition. Much ‘mind-reading’ seems rooted in sensorimotor representations and a developmentally primary 2nd person understanding of actions and the mental lives of others, which precisely breaks the assumed dichotomy between mind and behavior. I propose a Social Affordance model where parallel fronto-parietal sensorimotor circuits support representations not just of other people’s actions but of the overall social affordance space. It is a process that monitors concrete goals and teleological possibilities that the environment affords respectively oneself and other present agents. With this model I hypothesize that the complex spectrum of sensorimotor integrations are indeed essential not only to normal action choice calibration but also to social cognitive abilities, as the sensorimotor teleological representations let us relate to others and understand their action choices in a shared pragmatic and intentional context.

Some devices convert electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical power as  primary objective and so are not generally referred to as electric motors. Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric motors can also be used as generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform both tasks. Electric motors and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current, e.g., a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle, or by alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid or inverter. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of ships, pipeline compressors, and water pumps with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give.
The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks.
The speed of a DC motor can be varied by controlling the field flux, the armature resistance or the terminal voltage applied to the armature circuit. The three most common speed control methods are field resistance control, armature voltage control, and armature resistance control. In this section, modeling procedure of these three methods and feedback control method for DC motor drives for dynamic analysis are presented.

According to the Mines and Energy Minitry of Brazil the national industry spends 43,7% of all energy of the country, electrical motors are the responsible for 68% of all energy spend of the industries, what means that it is equivalent near to 30% of the energy of Brazill. It takes people to think about energy efficiency of electric motors in general. As the frequency inverters rised as equipaments that brings more energy efficiency in the electricity usage in motor drives, nowadays the electric engineering is looking for other alternatives to improve this and with this ideia the industry has been paying an especial attention in permanent magnet motors, due its high efficiency and performance. The growth of the market of permanent magnet motors is recent but already exist good numbers. As seen in a research of Markets and Markets there is a forecast to permanent magnet motors market of the Brushless DC motor type to enrich in 8,15 millions of dollars into 2021. According to Global Newswire economic leaders like EUA e countries of western Europe had a recent resumed of growth in the manufacturing sector that incorporated a good number of permanent magnet motors and helped with its popularization, still according to the same source, the biggest market of permanent motor is in Pacific-Asia, where are located countries like China, India, South Korea and Japan. Moreover, is notable the rising of electric cars in the automotive market around the world and permanent magnets have a fundamental place in developing these cars. The present work has a dissertation about the vector control of the permanent magnet synchronous motor, starting with a general review of this motor and following a theoretical revision of the vector control concept in a generic way and then adapting this vector control to the permanent magnet synchronous motor, considering its specificities, to finally achieve the drive model by vector control of this motor. A model of vector control drive of permanent magnet motor will be used for simulation in SIMULINK tool of software MATLAB.
Key-words: PMSM, PMAC, Permanet Magnet Motors Drivers, Vector Control, FOC

In the well-known rubber hand illusion (RHI), watching a rubber hand being stroked while one's own unseen hand is synchronously stroked, induces a relocation of the sensed position of one's own hand towards the rubber hand . Rubber hands 'feel' touch that eyes see. Nature, 391(6669), 756]. As one has lost the veridical location of one's hand, one should not be able to correctly guide one's hand movements. An accurate representation of the location of body parts is indeed a necessary pre-requisite for any correct motor command . How the brain represents the body: Insights from neurophysiology and psychology. In D. Gopher, & A. Koriat (Eds.), Attention and performance XVII-Cognitive regulation of performance interaction of theory and application (pp. 136-157)]. However, it has not yet been investigated whether action is indeed affected by the proprioceptive drift towards the rubber hand, nor has the resistance of visual capture in the RHI to new proprioceptive information been assessed. In the present two kinematic experiments, we show for the first time that action resists the RHI and that the RHI resists action. In other words, we show a dissociation between illusion-insensitive ballistic motor responses and illusion-sensitive perceptual bodily judgments. Moreover, the stimulated hand was judged closer to the rubber hand for the perceptual responses, even after active movements. This challenges the view that any proprioceptive update through active movement of the stimulated hand erases the illusion. These results expand the knowledge about representations of the body in the healthy brain, and are in line with the currently most used dissociation between two types of body representations so far mainly based on neuropsychological patients . Knowing where and knowing how to get there. In J. Paillard (Ed.), Brain and space (pp. 461-481); Paillard, J. (1999). Body schema and body image: A double dissociation in deafferented patients. In G. N. Gantchev, S. Mori, & J.Massion (Eds.), Motor control, today and tomorrow (pp. 197-214)].

Williams syndrome (WS) is a genetic disorder which results in an uneven cognitive profile. Despite superior language compared to other syndromes in the phenotypic outcome, toddlers with WS are as delayed in their language onset and early linguistic development as are toddlers with other syndromes. The cause of this delay in WS is as yet unknown. In a series of experiments, we examined whether atypical socio-interactive precursors to language could contribute to the explanation of the late language onset and atypical developmental pathways observed in WS. Experiment 1 showed that despite superficially good social skills, toddlers with WS were only proficient at dyadic interaction. They were impaired in triadic interaction, essential for the referential uses of language, and showed none of the correlations between socio-interactive markers and language seen in the typical controls. Experiment 2 focused on the comprehension and production of referential pointing. Again, the WS group was impaired, despite vocabulary levels higher than those of typically developing controls. Finally, Experiment 3 examined fine motor skills. The WS lack of pointing could not be explained in terms of motor impairments, since the WS toddlers were proficient at fine motor control, such as the pincer grip. Overall, our data indicate that the early stages of WS language follow an atypical pathway. The findings challenge the frequent claims in the literature that individuals with Williams syndrome have preserved linguistic and social skills.

Ada berbagai macam jenis motor yang digunakan pada dunia industri. Secara umum diklasifikasikan menjadi dua yaitu motor searah dan motor bolak-balik. Pada era sekarang umum dijumpai motor bolak – balik karena mudah dalam mencari sumber tenaganya. Untuk motor bolak – balik dapat kita fungsikan dengan menyambungkan langsung ke jala – jala pembangkit listrik Negara. Sedangkan motor searah industri adalah tidak mudah untuk mencari sumber tenaganya, yang biasanya membutuhkan sumber continue sumber listrik searah. Baterai tidak dapat secara langsung digunakan pada motor searah yang membutuhkan tenaga secara berkelanjutan karena nilai kapasitas tegangan yang semakin menurun. Gb. Klasisfikasi Umum Motor AC Motor Bolak – balik atau motor AC (alternating current) dapat dibagi menjadi beberapa klasifikasi yaitu motor ac single phase, motor ac polyphase (banyak fase), dan motor universal. Motor single phase banyak digunakan di kebutuhan rumah tangga dengan beragam fungsinya seperti motor pada mesin cuci, motor pada pompa, motor pada fan dan lain – lain. Kesamaannya adalah bisa langsung mendapat sumber dari colokan listrik rumah yang bertegangan 220VAC. Sedangkan motor berkapasitas besar seperti pada industry sering digunakan untuk motor AC polyphase. Motor induksi tiga phase adalah motor yang sering dijumpai di industri. Untuk motor sinkron tidak akan dibahas pada chapter ini karena motor ini dapat kita sebut sebagai generator.

This paper presents the detailed account on the control design for input tracking of a buck converter driven dc motor. Proportional-Integral (PI), Proportional-Integral-type Fuzzy Logic controller (PI-type FLC) and Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) are the techniques proposed in this investigation to control the speed of a dc motor. The dynamic system composed from buck-converter/dc motor is considered in this investigation and derived in  the state-space and transfer function forms. Complete analyses of simulation results for PI, PI-type  FLC and LQR techniques are presented in frequency domain and time domain. Performances of the controllers are examined in terms of input tracking capability, duty cycle input energy and armature current. Finally, a comparative assessment of the impact of each controller on the system performance is presented and discussed.

This thesis presents a novel hierarchical learning framework, Reinforcement Learning Optimal Control, for controlling nonlinear dynamical systems with continuous states and actions. The adapted approach mimics the neural computations that allow our brain to bridge across the divide between symbolic action-selection and low-level actuation control by operating at two levels of abstraction. First, current findings demonstrate that at the level of limb coordination human behaviour is explained by linear optimal feedback control theory, where cost functions match energy and timing constraints of tasks. Second, humans learn cognitive tasks involving learning symbolic level action selection, in terms of both model-free and model-based reinforcement learning algorithms. We postulate that the ease with which humans learn complex nonlinear tasks arises from combining these two levels of abstraction. The Reinforcement Learning Optimal Control framework learns the local task dynamics from naive experience using an expectation maximization algorithm for estimation of linear dynamical systems and forms locally optimal Linear Quadratic Regulators, producing continuous low-level control. A high-level reinforcement learning agent uses these available controllers as actions and learns how to combine them in state space, while maximizing a long term reward. The optimal control costs form training signals for high-level symbolic learner. The algorithm demonstrates that a small number of locally optimal linear controllers can be combined in a smart way to solve global nonlinear control problems and forms a proof-of-principle to how the brain may bridge the divide between low-level continuous control and high-level symbolic action selection. It competes in terms of computational cost and solution quality with state-of-the-art control, which is illustrated with solutions to benchmark problems.

Purpose. Motor skills can be learned in an explicit or an implicit manner. Explicit learning places high demands on working memory capacity, but engagement of working memory is largely circumvented when skills are learned implicitly. We propose that individuals with impaired movement dynamics may benefit from implicit learning methods when acquiring sportsrelated motor skills. Method. We discuss converging evidence that individuals with cerebral palsy and children born prematurely have compromised working memory capacity. This may in part explain the difficulties they encounter when learning motor and other skills. We also review tentative evidence that older people, whose movement dynamics deteriorate, can implicitly learn sports-related motor skills and that this results in more durable performance gains than explicit learning. Results. Individuals with altered movement dynamics and compromised working memory can benefit from implicit motor learning. Conclusion. We conclude with an appeal for more extensive evaluation of the merits of implicit motor learning in individuals with impaired movement dynamics.

Evidence exists that the observation of actions activates the same cortical motor areas that are involved in the performance of the observed actions. The neural substrate for this is the mirror neuron system. We harness this neuronal system and its ability to re-enact stored motor representations as a means for rehabilitating motor control.

This field experiment investigated the relative merits of approaching the penalty kick with either a keeper-independent or keeper-dependent strategy. In the keeper-independent strategy, the shooter selects a target location in advance and disregards the goalkeeper's actions during the run-up. In the keeper-dependent strategy, the shooter makes a decision resting on the anticipation of the goalkeeper's movements during the run-up. Ten intermediate-level soccer players shot at one of two visually specified targets to the right and left side of the goal. In the keeper-independent strategy condition, participants were told that the visually specified target would not change. In the keeper-dependent strategy condition, participants were told that in half of the trials the visually specified target would change side at different times before ball contact, indicating that the direction of the kick needed to be altered. The results showed that penalty-taking performance was apt to be less than perfect in the keeper-dependent strategy condition. A decrease in the time available to alter kick direction resulted in a higher risk of not only an incorrect but also inaccurate shot placement. It is concluded that anticipating the goalkeeper's movements may degrade penalty kick performance, mainly due to insufficient time to modify the kicking action.

Parkinson disease is a progressive neurological condition characterised by hypokinesia (reduced movement), akinesia (absent movement), tremor, rigidity and postural instability. These movement disorders are associated with a slow short-stepped, shuing gait pattern. Analysis of the biomechanics of gait in response to medication, visual cues, attentional strategies and neurosurgery provides insight into the nature of the motor control de®cit in Parkinson disease and the ecacy of current therapeutic interventions. In this article we supplement a critical evaluation of the Parkinson disease gait literature with two case examples. The ®rst case describes the kinematic gait response of an individual with Parkinson disease to visual cues in the``o'' phase of the levodopa medication cycle. The second case investigates the biomechanics and motor control of turning during walking in a patient with Parkinson disease compared with elderly and young control subjects. The results are interpreted in light of the need for gait analysis to investigate complex functional walking tasks rather than con®ning assessment to straight line walking, which has been the trend to date. Ó

Expert interceptive actions are grounded in both perceptual judgment and movement control, yet research has largely focused on the role of anticipation. More recently, the emergence of ecological psychology has provided movement scientists with opportunities to develop further understanding of the processes underpinning the development of expert information-movement couplings. In this chapter we discuss key research that has enhanced our understanding of perceptual-motor learning with specific focus on the concepts of education of attention and calibration. We conclude by discussing the practical implications of this research in the study of expertise highlighting the need for future research using sporting tasks.

This paper discusses the application of motor control theory and motor control learning to therapy interventions of children with motor delays. Attached to the first paper, is another article applying motor control theory to the Birth to Three population in Early Intervention settings. Co-author: Jane O'Brien, PhD, OTR

Einführung in die neuronalen Grundlagen der motorischen Kontrolle. Dieses Kapitel erläutert, wie geplante Handlungen vom Nervensystem in koordiniertes und zielgerichtetes Verhalten umgesetzt werden.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017
J. Müsseler, M. Rieger (Hrsg.), Allgemeine Psychologie, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-53898-8_20