Motion Events

The paper contributes to the typology of encoding motion events by highlighting the role of the verbal root meaning in lexicalization of motion. We focus on lexical semantics of the verbs of falling, which we study on a sample of 42 languages using the frame-based approach to lexical typology. We show that, along with downward motion, the verbs of falling regularly denote adjacent situations; and vice versa, the idea of downward motion is systematically conveyed by verbs from adjacent semantic fields. These findings challenge the application of the classical parameters of motion events (e.g. Path) to any given motion event description and offer new insights into the understanding of lexicalization patterns in general.

This chapter explores typological similarities and differences in motion event descriptions among three Germanic languages, English, German, and Norwegian by examining data from Experiment A developed in the NINJAL Project on Motion Event Descriptions across Languages (MEDAL). This study shows that speakers of these languages mainly employ head-external path-coding patterns across different kinds of motion events, as expected from previous studies. At the same time, we argue that they exhibit intratypological variations in several respects. These include 1) the use of different path-coding devices; 2) the manner and deixis coding positions; and 3) the patterns of certain caused-motion expressions. The inclusion of deixis in the comparison of the three languages reveals that the different ways deixis is coded in these languages account for other differences among them, such as the choice of manner expressions and even the expression patterns of caused-motion descriptions.

The present volume is an outcome of collaborative efforts of experiment-based, cross-linguistic research on the linguistic representations of motion events. The phenomenon of motion is ubiquitous in the world. Your family members walk around at home every day and run to work and school; you see cars passing by, dogs running about, and birds flying away. Such events are frequently seen in daily life and are of interest to people and are talked about by speakers. It is therefore no wonder that every language (to the best of our knowledge) has a specific set of morphological, lexical, and constructional forms to represent motion. Since motion is a multifaceted phenomenon involving several components, expression patterns used sometimes vary within a language, and languages manifest differences in the expressions they adopt. The linguistic descriptions of motion thus provide an interesting set of data that enable us to discuss commonalities and variations among and within languages. A motion event involves several entities. Consider what kinds of notions are involved in the motion event described in example (1).1 (1) Susan ran down the hill toward me. 1 Terms concerning the semantic components of motion in this volume generally follow those of Talmy (1985, 1991), but differ from them in several respects, especially the adoption of the terms "trajectory" and "means of causation".

In terms of Formosan languages (a primary branch of Austronesian languages spoken on the island of Taiwan), while issues like tense, aspect and mood (TAM) has been intensively discussed, the topic of 'modality' has not been explored in depth. • Being one of the few Formosan languages that have auxiliaries, the Seediq language (Atayalic) productively uses auxiliaries to express TAM and also modality. • At the same time, the author of this research has also been studying Toda Seediq, an under-studied dialect of the Seediq language, and this has led to the following research questions: a) What kinds of modal auxiliaries does Toda Seediq have (both morpho-syntactically and semantically)? b) Do Toda Seedia modal auxiliaries semantically function the same or similar to the modal expressions of other languages cross-linguistically?

This paper presents a general survey of borrowing within the Malayic language family, in which both the source and the recipient languages are either varieties of Malay/Indonesian, or other closely-related Malayic languages. The survey provides empirical evidence for a generalization governing the directionality of borrowing, specifying that the donor variety tends to be higher than the recipient variety on a scale of exotericity, making reference to a set of features of a broadly sociolinguistic nature. In terms of a sociolinguistically-based typology of Malayic varieties, the most frequent instances of borrowing within Malayic are from Standard Malay and Indonesian into koiné varieties and traditional dialects, as well as from koiné varieties into traditional dialects.

In this study, the comparable effectiveness of two pedagogical approaches in teaching L2-learners of Italian the perfective/imperfective aspectual alternation in past tenses is tested. The first is a Cognitive Grammar (CG)-inspired approach, where the teacher uses image schemas, bodily representations, and drawings to help learners explore and understand the underlying logic of Aspect and aspectual alternation. The second is a classic PPP approach, where the teacher works with mnemonic exercises, drills, and reproduction techniques, and uses classic metalinguistic terms to explain aspectual alternation. The choice of whether to use perfect or imperfect, namely the passato prossimo and the imperfetto, represents a major source of error for advanced and less advanced learners of Italian (and other Romance languages), and it seems rather resistant to traditional (i.e. PPP) grammatical instruction. Therefore, our CG-inspired proposal focuses on the presentation, through pictorial illustration and physical activation, of the reasons behind this aspectual alternation, connected to its contexts of use. The study has a classroom-based, quasi-experimental nature and includes a control and an experimental group, both made up of L2 Italian university students. Data indicate a significantly greater efficacy of the CG-inspired treatment. In the concluding section, the relevance of these findings for L2 teaching is discussed.

Comparaison entre le coréen et le français • Selon Talmy (1985, 2000), le coréen et le français sont des langues à cadrage verbal. • Mais le coréen permet des constructions à verbes sériels, comme le chinois. • Nos analyses portent sur l'expression du mouvement par des enfants coréenophones, comparés à des enfants francophones, selon la méthodologie mise au point par Hickmann et al. (2009 ; 2018). 5 Rencontres Bordelaises de Linguistique Coréenne et Japonaise. Univ. Bordeaux-Montaigne 26-27 nov. 2021 • Le coréen est une langue à verbe final (SOV). (3) 존이 언덕에서 내려 왔다. John-i endek-eyse nayli-e o-ass-ta. John-SBJ colline-de descend-CONN vient-PST-DECL 'John est descendu de la colline (vers le locuteur).' (4) 철수가 통을 창고에 넣었다. Chelswu-ka thong-lul changko-ey neh-ess-ta. Chelswu-SBJ tonneau-OBJ réserve-BUT mettre.dans-PST-DECL 'Chelswu a mis le tonneau dans la réserve.' Grammaire du coréen

The verb-framed vs. satellite-framed language dichotomy (Talmy, 1985) is the most common framework used in the crosslinguistic investigation of motion event expressions. According to the classification, French is a verb-framed language, it integrates the path of motion into the main verb and uses a separate component to express the manner of motion. On the other hand, English, a satellite-framed language, gives the manner information in the main verb and expresses the path of motion with a separate component. This study uses this dichotomy to see whether the motion event expressions patterns of these two different languages (French and English) are also reflected in their motion event categorisations or not.

In this thesis, I study how languages change in situations where languages or groups of speakers are in contact with each other. As language change is inherently caused by interaction between individuals, I use a technique from multi-agent Artificial Intelligence (AI) that puts the interaction of individuals central: agent-based computer simulations. I apply these agent-based models to specific case studies of language change in the real world. The goal of the thesis is two-fold: getting a better view of the mechanisms behind language change and studying how computational methods work on real-world problems with small amounts of data. I present three different computer models, which each answer a particular linguistic question given a specific case study or dataset.

In my first model, I study how language contact can make languages simplify, using a case study of Alorese, a language in Eastern Indonesia. By integrating data from the language into an agent-based model, I study if the phonotactics of the language -- the allowed structure of sounds following each other -- could play a role in simplification. In my second model, I investigate if mechanisms in conversations could be a factor in language change. Using an agent-based model, I show how speakers influencing each other's linguistic choices in conversations can under certain circumstances, lead to spread of an innovative form In my third model, I investigate what could be a cognitively realistic computer model for the `brain' of the speakers, that could be used in an agent-based simulation. I develop a neural network model, based on a technique called Adaptive Resonance Theory, which has as its task to cluster verbs that conjugate in the same way into groups. The model is able to learn the systems of verbs of languages from different families while being interpretable: it is possible to visualise to which parts of the words the network attends.

Together, the three models show how different mechanisms that interact with each other can lead to language change when languages are in contact. The models show how mechanisms working on short timescales, such as on the scale of a conversation, can cause effects in the longer term, leading to language change. At the same time, this thesis gives insights for the development of communication in multi-agent AI systems, especially when there are multiple types of agents, as is the case in language contact situations.

Until the advent of Kayne's (1994) Antisymmetry hypothesis, word order patterns such as SOV and VOS were generally seen as the result of a trivial linear ordering of X° and its complement, or X' and its Specifier. For VOS languages, such analyses are found in Guilfoyle, Hung & Travis (1992), in Holmer (1996) and in Chang (1997). Under this view, the subject-predicate relation is held to be identical in SVO languages and VOS languages, the difference being confined to linear order between X' and its Specifier (1). (1) a. VOS structure b. SVO structure Kayne's hypothesis marked the beginning of a new era in word order research. Following his claim that c-command and linearity are inseparable concepts, and that, as a consequence, all syntactic structure is underlyingly SVO 1 , new types of movement analyses were required to derive word orders such as VOS. Such movement patterns can easily become rather complex (2), and the idea of applying the Antisymmetric hypothesis to VOS languages was therefore often either ignored (Chang 1997) or sharply criticized (Holmer 1996) during the early years following the appearance of Kayne's model. Even in retrospect, this is a natural reaction: any comparison of (1a) with (2) must naturally view the former as a null hypothesis. Unless empirical support can be found for the structure in (2), its only advantage is the purely theory-internal consideration of a maximally constrained phrase structure. Therefore, the most important test for Antisymmetry lies in finding empirical reasons for assuming that (2) is more correct than (1a). (2) VOS by predicate raising XP 5 During the past few years, serious attempts have been made to provide such empirical support. Some of these studies (e.g. Aldridge 2002) are concerned with the subject-sensitivity of wh-relations and relativization in (primarily Austronesian) VOS languages. Others (e.g. Massam 2000) have been more concerned with the mechanism which forces leftward movement of the predicate, essentially suggesting that predicate raising is derived by a mechanism analogous to that which raises the subject out of vP in SVO languages (the Extended Projection Principle). 2 Since these steps were taken, other fragments of evidence have been appearing which seem to lend empirical support to an antisymmetric account of VOS order. Together, these fragments now build a substantial case for the antisymmetry hypothesis. In particular, it can be demonstrated that traditional

lo que hace que ciertas empresas: supermercados, automoción y telefonía móvil sobre todo, traduzcan sus anuncios del inglés al español para vender mejor sus productos a la población hispanohablante. Así, se estudian aquí ejemplos de anuncios en inglés, publicados en Miami y traducidos al español que evidencian las diferencias tipológicas entre ambas lenguas a la hora de expresar el movimiento. El presente estudio explica la razón por la que ciertas expresiones son complejas desde una perspectiva conceptual y por tanto son de difícil traducción en textos publicitarios que requieren brevedad y precisión. Partiendo de la psicología sociocultural sobre la mente humana, , donde ya se plantea la importancia de la conceptualización en el desarrollo del pensamiento, este trabajo explica cómo el pensamiento verbal según el concepto de de thinking-for-speaking patterns nos ayuda a entender las diferencias en la traducción del mismo anuncio. En concreto, se analizan los verbos de movimiento, motion events, estudiados por y la diferencia tipológica que existe entre el inglés y el español. El análisis de los datos revela tres estrategias básicas utilizadas a la hora de traducir los verbos de movimiento, así como explica la

Do children come to the language-learning situation with a predetermined set of ideas about motion events that they want to communicate? If so, is the expression of these ideas modified by exposure to a language model within a particular cultural context? We explored these questions by comparing the gestures produced by Chinese and American deaf children who had not been exposed to a usable conventional language model with the speech of hearing children learning Mandarin or English. We found that, even in the absence of any conventional language model, deaf children conveyed the central elements of a motion event in their communications. More surprisingly, deaf children growing up in an American culture used their gestures to express motion events in precisely the same ways as deaf children growing up in a Chinese culture. In contrast, hearing children in the two cultures expressed motion events differently, in accordance with the languages they were learning. The American children obeyed the patterns of English and rarely omitted words for figures or agents. The Chinese children had more flexibility as Mandarin permits (but does not demand) deletion. Interestingly, the Chinese hearing children's descriptions of motion events resembled the deaf children's descriptions more closely than did the American hearing children's. The thoughts that deaf children convey in their gestures thus may serve as the starting point and perhaps a default for all children as they begin the process of grammaticization -thoughts that have not yet been filtered through a language model.

INTRODUCTION • Aims: Chinese has been classified by Talmy (1985:106-7) as a satellite-framed language (S-language), in which the satellites correspond to what are usually called ‘directional complements’ (hereafter designated ‘D’). However, as was pointed out by Tai 2003 and Lamarre 2003c, Chinese does not fit very well in this category, since apart from VD constructions, it also often uses Path verbs to express spatial motion. On the other hand, even in cases when a VD construction is used, Slobin (2004) proposed, on the ground that Chinese directionals are verbal elements and not particles, to put Chinese together with Thai in a third category, called ‘equipollently-framed languages’, where the co-event verb and the directional verb would be of equivalent morphosyntactic weight. We address here the issue of Chinese’s status in Talmy’s typology, with reference to Goldberg & Jackendoff’s discussion (2003) on English resultative constructions, and to Cappelle & Declerck’s discussion ...

This paper discusses a productive compounding pattern, which combines preposition 往 wang (or wǎng) ‘towards’, with a path-expressing element P, either a monosyllabic localizer, e.g. wǎnglǐ 往里 ‘in’, or a path verb, e.g. wǎnghui 往回 ‘back’ or wǎngqǐ 往起 ‘up’. Wang-P compounds, like directional complements, express the core path meanings of a spatial motion event (‘up’, ‘down’, ‘in’, ‘out’, ‘across’ etc.), but they appear before the verb. Directional complements follow the verb, and have a bounding effect on the clause, like resultative complements (eg. 拿进去na-jinqu ‘take in’ or na-qilai 拿起来 ‘take up’). We argue that one important motivation for this lexicalization process is the need for two complete symmetric sets of path-marking elements sharing the same path meanings but with different aspectual implications for the clause. The development of the second type of compounds (WANG+directional verb), which appears later in history, fills up the gaps existing in the repertory of core path m...

The thesis deals with wh-questions and left periphery in Saisiyat. We focus on the topics regarding the interpretation and the syntactic distribution of wh's. The interrogatives in Saisiyat are grouped into two types: nominal and adverbial according to their corresponding syntactic and morphological behaviors. Among them, nominal wh-words like general nouns can either be marked by case markers or function as predicates in equational constructions. On the other hand, the free distribution of adverbial wh-words, which violate subject-sensitive theory, can be reasonably illustrated under the T-feature checking hypothesis proposed by Tsai (2004). Moreover, we will also discuss some wh-words with dual-status, which can serve as a head and as a modifier. We argue that Saisiyat is a true wh-in-situ language. Since nominal wh-words are licensed by operator-variable binding involving no syntactic movement, it lacks locality effects, and violates ECP and Subjacency. Crucially, the interpretation procedure is through the choice function put forward by Reinhart (1998). That is, wh’s serve as a choice function which selects the set variable denoted by N-restriction. The choice function, in turn, is translated as an f-variable being long-distantly bound by a Q-operator far away. Thus, it solves the problems of incorrect entailment resulting from applying unselective binding mechanism. Furthermore, the indefinite wh construals are due to the intervention between the Q-operator and other quantifiers. We propose that the adverbial wh-words, i.e. nak ’ino’ ‘how’ and ’am powa’ ‘why’, in Saisiyat have different significance depending on their corresponding syntactic positions. According to the evidence from subjectivity restriction, intervention effects, no-matter constructions, multiple wh-constructions, etc., it follows that causal how and reason why are directly merged into left periphery and function as sentential operators, whereas manner how, instrumental how and purpose why occupy the vP periphery and serve as event predicates. Manner how as an adverb with quantifier feature must undergo LF movement. However, the latter two are licensed by operator-variable binding. Dissimilar licensing procedure results in intervention effects with different degree. Besides, reason how as an argument occurs in the complement position of predicate and is governed by the verb. Adopting the cartographic approach (cf. Rizzi 1997, Ramchand 2003) and inner-outer dichotomy (cf. Tsai 2007), we depict the syntax-semantics map of the wh’s. Thus, the asymmetry of intervention effects on wh’s can get a reasonable explanation under Rizzi’s (1997) Generalized Relativized Minimality (see also Tsai 2008).

This research aims to explore the interactions between DP ellipsis, island effects, and theta-role assignment. I try to provide a consistent explanation under the framework of the Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1993). The ellipsis phenomenon touches on many interesting issues. According to structural types, deletion operations can be divided into NP/N' ellipsis, VP ellipsis, PP ellipsis, IP-related ellipsis and CP-elliptical form (Chiu 2011; Gallego 2009; Gengel 2008). However, the derivation mechanism regarding empty categories is still under debate. In the literature, PF-deletion (Marchant 1999) and LF-copy (Lobeck 1995; Chung et al. 1995) are two representative approaches. The former argues that given grammar elements exist at the very beginning of the syntactic operation. After certain syntactic operations, such as copy movement, take place, some of their copies undergo deletion at the PF interface, which removes phonetic content. On the other hand, the latter advocates that nothing exists in the position where the empty category is located. The semantic content is supplied via LF-copy. Furthermore, the final conclusion about the subcategorization of empty categories has not yet been settled. The empty categories are divided into PRO, pro, Wh-trace and NP-trace in the framework of GB theory (Chomsky 1981). Chomsky (1993) further proposes that traditional PRO, Wh-trace and NP-trace are derived via copy movement while pro is a base-generated element. The subsequent development of grammatical theories and typological studies enriches this discussion. Huang (1984) divides Mandarin empty categories into pronominal and variable. Based on Huang’s research, Li (2005) proposes a third category as last resort, i.e., True Empty Category (TEC). Xu (1986) advocates that empty categories in English-type languages can be further divided according to their characteristics, while all empty categories in Mandarin-type languages belong to a single category, i.e., Free Empty Category (FEC). However, Huang (2010) argues that the pronominal construal of empty category is subject to the Generalized Control Rule (GCR), which can be explained by the concept of Predication or Strong Binding (Chomsky 1980). This research deals with DP ellipsis in three Formosan languages, including Atayal, Saisiyat and Amis. I focus on the characteristics of empty categories related to nominative, accusative and genitive position. According to syntactic distribution and extraction condition, I propose that the null DP in question can be divided into two types: pronominal and variable. The pronominal empty category is a based-generated element and is subject to GCR. However, the variable, a copy resulting from movement, has to conform to locality conditions. Semantically, only empty nominative DPs can have pronominal construal and take matrix subjects as their antecedents, whereas variable construal can occur in nominative and accusative position, or even in genitive position for some languages. This variable can be coindexed with a sentential topic or a discourse referent. According to Formosan languages, many facts, such as DP ellipsis-related ambiguity and unexpected theta-role assignment, support my argument that empty categories must be further classified depending on the corresponding syntactic and semantic characteristics. Furthermore, there exist some additional puzzles, such as the exceptional island effects or the violation of subject-object asymmetry. In fact, many linguists propose various kinds of solutions, which are based on identification mechanisms or syntactic and semantic properties of empty arguments to account for the above exception, such as FEC (Xu 1986), a heterogeneous theory of islands (Merchant 1999), LF-copy (Chung et al. 1995), antilogophor (L. Liu 2004), anaphora (Huang 2009), TEC (Li 2005), and Argument-Per-Sub-Event-Condition (Wei 2017). Instead, I argue that the Formosan examples can be explained via 2-step Discourse Binding (Huang 1984), the Nominative DP Restriction (NDR) and the Nominative Position Competition (NPC). Moreover, this thesis discusses backward object control constructions. In the constructions, the shared argument possesses dual theta-roles and controllee occurs in a higher position than controller. I argue that the derivation can be accounted for under the Movement Theory of Control (Horstein 1999) and Chain Reduction Principle (Nunes 2004). Lastly, I propose a preliminary typological classification of my target languages. First, all of my target languages are discourse-oriented. However, they can be further divided into EEC-sensitive type (Atayal) and non-EEC-sensitive type (Saisiyat and Amis), which indicates that genitive DP ellipsis is restricted in the former but relatively free in the latter. I argue that the value of [TOP] feature of Atayal genitive DPs is underspecified, which prevents it from undergoing movement to check the uninterpretable [TOP] feature of a given head. The Formosan materials support the claim that different kinds of empty arguments possess unique features.

RESUMEN: Continuando nuestro proyecto de recuperación de la memoria de aquellas mujeres que nos precedieron en el tiempo y en la investigación de las lenguas propias de Aragón, parte del cual dimos a conocer en María Moliner y las primeras estudiosas del aragonés y del catalán de Aragón, queremos sacar del olvido y dar a conocer el trabajo sobre el aragonés realizado por María del Pilar Guirao Parga en la década de los cincuenta del siglo XX. Nacida en Canfranc (Huesca) en 1932, Guirao pertenece al grupo de las primeras mujeres que cursaron estudios de Filología Románica fuera de Aragón, ya que la Universidad de Zaragoza no los ofrecía en aquel momento. La mayoría de ellas, y fue el caso también de María del Pilar Guirao, los realizaron en la Universidad de Barcelona, donde consiguieron el grado de licenciadas mediante tesis sobre el aragonés o el catalán de Aragón llevadas a cabo bajo la dirección del profesor Antoni M.ª Badia i Margarit. En concreto, la estudiosa realizó una tesis sobre las Clases de transportes en el Campo de Jaca, que presentó en dicha Universidad en 1957 y en la que, partiendo de la escasa bibliografía que en aquella época había sobre el tema y siguiendo el método alemán Wörter und Sachen ('palabras y cosas'), encuestó y estudió, como el título indica, los nombres de los utensilios empleados para el transporte en el Pirineo, especialmente en el Campo de Jaca.

group of scholars, especially across the gap which has heretofore divided researchers of mainland Southeast Asian languages and the Austronesian languages of the Pacific; needed publication of descriptive, theoretical, and historical accounts of these languages, in the first instance in the form of these proceedings volumes; and greater awareness of these languages by non-specialist linguists, many of whom attempt to make universal and typological generalizations about the human language faculty without the important ...

Recent studies have identified neural correlates of language effects on perception in static domains of experience such as colour and objects. The generalization of such effects to dynamic domains like motion events remains elusive. Here, we focus on grammatical differences between languages relevant for the description of motion events and their impact on visual scene perception. Two groups of native speakers of German or English were presented with animated videos featuring a dot travelling along a trajectory towards a geometrical shape (endpoint). English is a language with grammatical aspect in which attention is drawn to trajectory and endpoint of motion events equally. German, in contrast, is a non-aspect language which highlights endpoints. We tested the comparative perceptual saliency of trajectory and endpoint of motion events by presenting motion event animations (primes) followed by a picture symbolising the event (target): In 75% of trials, the animation was followed by ...

Traditionally, 'morphemes' are complex consisting morphophonological properties and syntactico-semantic properties. But in realizational theories such as Distributed Morphology which is syntactic approach to word formation, morphemes are abstract bundle of features without phonological properties. e.g. pl, fem, masc, categorizers (Embick 2015) etc. However, when language assigns phonological properties to those features (which is called late insertion) then they are vocabulary items not morphemes. This was confirmed in Marantz (2000:15) where he said '… we see, overtly, the vocabulary items, not the morphemes..'. Moreover, morphemes are generative and there is no any bound morpheme, all are free (Hankamer &Mikkelsen, 2013). Vocabulary items are not generative but expandable and visibly they can either be free or bound. So this paper intends to elaborate these issues together with evidence from Hausa. The entire paper is divided into following subsections: Introduction, Distributed morphology, morphemes and vocabulary items in Hausa and their difference, followed by conclusion remarks.

When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. Declaration for SOAS PhD thesis I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the SOAS, University of London concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work which I present for examination.

This paper presents a cross-linguistic study in progress that uses eye-tracking techniques to investigate how language-specific properties affect cognition. The motion domain shows systematic cross-linguistic variation in how frequently the semantic dimensions of PATH and MANNER are expressed and what linguistic means are used to encode them (inside vs. outside the main verb). Talmy (2000) captures this variation in his proposed dichotomous typology of satellite-framing (SF) vs. verb-framing (VF) languages: Whilst English speakers (SF) typically verbalize both PATH and MANNER together (e.g. ‘He ran across the street’), French speakers (VF) by default focus more on Path alone, which is typically expressed in the main verb (e.g. Il a traverse la rue – He crossed the road) whereas MANNER is often either omitted or encoded in peripheral constructions, such as gerunds (e.g. en courant – by/whilst running). The question as to whether these differences have a deeper cognitive impact going ...

With respect to complex motion events, such as in (1), Talmy argues that the framing motion event ("moving into the cave") which expresses the core relationship (Path) between the moving Figure and the Ground, and the co-event ("floating") which expresses the Manner of Motion, are organized differently across languages. Thus, some components that are internal to the translatory structure or external to it may merge by an operation of conflation, defined as "any syntactic process-whether a long derivation involving many deletions and insertions, or just a single lexical insertion-whereby a more complex construction turns into a simpler one" (Talmy 1972: 257). (1) The bottle floated into the cave English (Talmy 2000: 117) 10 As seen before, and according to this framing event schema and the variation he observes in the encoding patterns, Talmy focuses on one particular spatial semantic category, Path, in order to investigate what morphosyntactic categories are responsible for its realization. He takes a function-to-form approach and demonstrates that languages characteristically realize Path either in the verb root or in a preposition (which Talmy generalizes to any adnominal category) or with a Satellite (a grammatical category of any constituent other than a noun-phrase or prepositional phrase that is in a sister relation to the verb root). Thus, he recognizes two major types of languages: (a) those who lexicalize the framing Path event in the main verb (Verb-framed languages); and (b) those who express it in the periphery of the main verb, in Satellites (Satellite-framed languages). 4 11 From a syntactic point of view, motion verbs are recognized as special, leading to spatial expressions that do not resemble other types of predicates (Boons 1987; Boons, Guillet & Leclère 1976). With this in mind, Matsumoto (2003), who focuses on the distribution of the spatial elements without excluding their semantic characterization, proposes a slightly different terminology. He replaces the terms Verb-and Satellite-framed languages by Headand NonHead-framed languages. His distinction extents Talmy's typology and specifies further the notion of 'satellite'. He underlines, for instance, the fact that all satellites are nonheads, but argues that not all nonheads are satellites. Satellites, as defined above, do not include prepositions or case markers on nominals, since they are not in a sister Motion events in Greek

This paper analyzes the translation of Manner-of-motion in a Swedish>Spanish parallel corpus of crime novels by Henning Mankell (and more specifically, a selection of the Wal-lander series). Since Swedish is a satellite-framed language, while Spanish is a verb-framed language, the aim of the research is to identify translation techniques adapted to the issue of translating Manner-of-motion in an intertypological translation scenario. The results of this study are compared with previous research on the topic, which has focused mainly on general prose fiction and fiction for children and young adults. Our findings confirm that Manner-of-motion is omitted to a great extent in the Spanish translations, compared with the original texts in Swedish. Moreover, some differences are encountered in the translation of original fragments, including general and specific Manner-of-motion verbs.

This paper draws on an approach that conceptualizes L2 learning difficulty in terms of implicit and explicit knowledge. In a study with L1 Mexican Spanish university-level learners (n=30), their teachers (n=11) and applied linguistics experts (n=3), we investigated the relationship between (a) these groups' difficulty judgements of 13 selected L2 English structures and (b) perceived learning difficulty and learners' actual performance on measures

This study explored the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge of 13 second language (L2) English grammar points and the relationship of each type of knowledge with language learning aptitude and working memory capacity in 90 Mexican learners of L2 English at three different levels of proficiency (Level 5, Level 7, Level 9). An elicited imitation test and an oral narrative test were used to measure implicit knowledge, and a metalinguistic knowledge test was used to measure explicit knowledge. With respect to language learning aptitude and working memory, the former was operationalised by the LLAMA test, and the latter by the backward digit span test. With regard to the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge correlated positively and weakly with explicit knowledge while an analysis by grammar point showed a non-significant negative correlation approaching significance between implicit and explicit scores. These results indicate that lea...

This paper is the first detailed description of the exceptionally rich subsystem of verbal inflections that express imperfective aspect in Tacana, an endangered and underdescribed language from the Takanan family. The unusually high degree of elaboration of this system, which includes nine members in paradigmatic opposition, is achieved by co-expressing imperfective aspect with spatial meanings taken from two distinct categories: associated motion (with five values: ‘going’, ‘coming’, ‘going back’, ‘coming back’, ‘wandering’) and what I will call “associated posture” (with three values: ‘standing’, ‘lying/bending’, ‘hanging’). The ninth member is a default imperfective marker that does not carry any spatial meaning. The paper challenges linguistic theories that consider grammatical(izable) concepts as belonging to a strictly limited range of notional domains from which motion and posture are excluded. Additionally, the paper provides strong support for a new comparative concept of “associated posture” in linguistics.

This paper offers an overview of Sumbawa deixis in the Sumbawa Besar dialect, a language spoken in the western part of Sumbawa Island in Indonesia. Personal deixis distinguishes the three common persons: number (singular and plural) is distinguished only in the first and second person, while speech level is distinguished in the first and second person singular. The basic set of the spatial demonstrative exhibits three-term distinctions according to distance from the reference point, as follows: ta-nearer the speaker than the addressee; nan-nearer the addressee than the speaker; and ana-distant from both the speaker and the addressee. Temporal deixis adopts two of these demonstratives, namely, proximal ta and distal ana. In addition to situational use, ta and nan have cataphoric and anaphoric uses, respectively. Ta also functions in narratives to indicate the important entities in a plot and thus makes the plot easy to understand. In addition to the basic set of spatial demonstratives, the form tó' is used in noun phrases to refer to an entity or situation that is visible to either the speaker or the addressee, but whose presence is not recognized by the addressee. 1 Adelaar (2005b) postulates Malayo-Sumbawan as a larger subgroup within the Malayo-Polynesian family. The Bali-Sasak-Sumbawa group is included in this subgroup together with Chamic, Malayic, Sundanese, and Madurese. This classification is not compatible with the Greater North Borneo (GNB) subgroup hypothesis postulated by Blust (2010), in that the GNB includes Malayo-Chamic and Sundanese as well as all the languages of Borneo except the Barito family, but not Balinese, Sasak, and Madurese. In his claim for the GNB subgroup, Blust (2010) casts doubt on the evidence presented by Adelaar for the Malayo-Sumbawan subgroup.

Setting the scene-the cognitive semiotics of motion The present paper argues that the lexico-grammar of spatial Motion (as a supercategory for dynamic movement and static location, cf. Talmy 1985) cannot be understood except as an integral part of the semiotic triad of reality, mind, and language. M otion in language should thus be explained on the basis of the (Gestaltist) psychology of motion in perception, in that language 'structures' the mind's construction of motion in reality. Accordingly, the typology of motion verbs is based on an experientially founded typology of motional situations in mind. A mental motional situation is perceptual, or 'pictorial': Human beings perceive motional situations in reality by forming (concrete) 'pictures' of them with diverse figureground constellations-and recognize them as belonging to different categories (according to stored percepts). There are two kinds of picture, viz. static, or 'stable', and dynamic, or 'unstable', roughly according as the figure is static or dynamic. Furthermore, we seem to be able to construct only one situational picture at a time. A single situational picture is a simple mental Situation-a stable picture is a 'state', and an unstable picture an 'activity'. So far the notion of M otion has been Perceptual. Now, it goes without saying that the 'mentality' of Situations involves much more than simple perceptual Situations, in that situations may be conceived of as possibly integrated with one another into 'complex' Situations. A "snapshot" of what at first sight might seem to be only a state or an activity may thus show out to be the endpoint or the starting point "window", respectively, on an integrated, complex Situation involving an Activity and a State, what will be called an Action. In the first case, the State in focus would be preceded by a causal Activity; in the second case the Activity in focus would be succeeded by a resultant State, in the normal course of events. The connection between the two simple Situations in a complex actional Situation is a general relation of telicity, the causal Activity tending to actually eventuate in the resultant State. The state-focused Action will be termed an Event, whereas an activity-focused Action will be termed a Process. Illustrating this, we may conceive of a scenario where I am sitting alone in the drawing room, then leave for the kitchen and come back, and lo and behold, you are sitting there! This may be conceived of as a M otion Situation, viz. a M otion Event, where you are sitting here as a result of your, say, returning home from work, and I may second it by the utterance Nå, du er kommet hjem fra arbejde 'oh, you've come home from work'. In this case the motion for me was only conceptual, in that I didn't see, or otherwise witness it, but only inferred it. We may thus talk about Conceptual motion in such cases. When now turning to language (as a system) and the typology of motion verbs in the mental lexicon, we must add the Sign Vehicle, i.e. the phonological expression, as a representation of Percean Firstness. The linguistic Sign Object (Secondness) and Sign Interpretant (Thirdness) then recall the mental perceptual and conceptual structures, respectively, just mentioned. So the sign contents are twofold , the linguistic cognitive-semantic domain being bipartitioned into an (abstract) perception-based 'imaginal' representation (cf. Spatial Structure in Jackendoff 2002) and an (abstract) conception-based 'ideational' representation (cf. Conceptual Structure in Jackendoff 2002). 1. Background, aims, and scope 1.1 Lexicalization typology M otion event research has grown into a well-established and highly productive field. Its theoretical cornerstone are the classic studies by Talmy (1975, 1985; for further refinements, see 2000: 25ff.), supplemented by works primarily by Slobin (e.g. 1996a/b; 2004a/b), but also by others (for an overview, see M ora Gutiérrez 2001). Despite the overwhelming amount of specific works within motion event research and despite the seemingly growing awareness of the need for a more fine-grained, less schematic approach than the Talmy-Slobin framework, the core assumptions and variables of the framework nevertheless are still upheld. Talmy's basic assumption is that even though people's pre-linguistic conceptualization of e.g. a directed M otion Situation appears to be universal-involving the same fundamental components to be lexicalized (apart from Figure and Ground, Motion itself, Manner of M otion, or Cause, and Path (i.e. trajectory), the ways of linguistically lexicalizing it in different languages are not the same because not all the components are able to be colexicalized in the same (verbal) morpheme in a major lexicalization system (Talmy 1985: 76): apart from cases where only M otion is lexicalized in the verb, as in English move, either the M anner component co-lexicalizes with the M otion component in the verb, leaving the Path behind to be lexicalized in a so-called Satellite, as in M anner languages, or it is the Path component that is lexically 'incorporated' into the verb, in so-called verb-framed or Path languages, whereby the M anner component becomes secondary, left for optional expression in a con-verb or adverb. Thus, we have a nice binary typology of major lexicalization patterns, and derivatively of languages, in that it is assumed that at least most languages fit into one of these types:  Manner (or, satellite-framed) languages, like e.g., Danish, Swedish, English, German, Russian, and Chinese, where only the Manner of motion is lexicalized in the verb root together with M otion, while the direction or Path of motion is explicated elsewhere when

The present article explores the benefits that a corpus stylistic approach can provide to the study of literary translation. The focus is on identifying specific strategies in translation and in what way they interact with the constraints that characterize the translation of children's literature. The article tackles phenomena such as foregrounded language, whether it is alliteration, repetition or expressive language created through word-deformation, in a text such as Roald Dahl's dark fantasy novel The Witches and its three corresponding Romanian target texts, seeking to explore effective methods of recapturing the stylistic effect present in the source text. The data show that foregrounded language is translated mainly through equivalence, with the notable exception of alliteration, which is compensated for. Since the source text has been thrice translated into Romanian, the article also checks whether the "unretranslability hypothesis" (Sanz Gallego et al., 2023) applies with respect to foregrounded language in the present corpus. The instances of overlapping linguistic material analysed indicate that there are not enough grounds to support the hypothesis and that a possibly larger corpus and more clearly defined terminology are needed in this respect.

This study aims to identify the language dimensions contained in textbooks. The language dimensions studied were viewed from the linguistic aspects which included phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and discourse grammatical components. Various grammar components were formulated based on the Indonesian Grammar Model which was included in scientific or linguistics grammar, educational grammar models in pedagogical grammar, as well as studies on various grammatical dimension theories. This research was conducted in the frame of a qualitative approach using content analysis techniques on written discourses in the form of teaching materials with a focus on aspects of the grammatical components developed in Indonesian Junior High School textbooks. Through intensive reading and writing abstractions that identified the existence of grammatical forms, there were five aspects that were explicitly identified in the textbook, namely the grammatical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic components. Meanwhile, the grammar component of discourse was implicitly identified. Phonological aspects included the study of speech sounds, namely how sounds are produced (phonetic studies) and how sounds are symbolized (phonemic studies). Morphological aspects related to word formation both related to various morphological processes and word classes. Syntactic aspects included parts of sentence units, sentence functions, and sentence intonation, while semantic aspects related to aspects of meaning. Individually and simultaneously, aspects of the grammar component found were applications in building communicative competence. Standard aspects of pronunciation, form of word classes and fixation processes, arrangement of compound sentences or passive sentences, use of correct diction, use of cohesion in creating paragraphs, texts, and discourse were used to produce effective sentences in communication. The findings of the research are recommended in the context of developing and stabilizing educational grammar as well as being input in designing and preparing Indonesian textbooks.

This paper describes the function and distribution of the main morphological markers of voice and valency in the Oceanic language Äiwoo: the undergoer-voice suffixes-i,-nyi(i),-ive,-eâ, and-nâ, and the circumstantial voice clitic =Cä. It compares these functions and distributions to those reconstructed for the Proto Oceanic transitivising morphemes *-i and *akin[i], and suggests pathways of change that can account for many of the present-day Äiwoo forms as being reflexes of these morphemes and of the 3SG object clitic *=a, though some of the formal differentiation remains unexplained. This analysis implies that Äiwoo has a Philippine-type symmetrical voice system with Oceanic morphology, an unusual state of affairs which has implications for our understanding of the transition from Proto Malayo-Polynesian to Proto Oceanic. AV-take.out SPEC woman NPIV rice LOC sack for LOC child 'The woman will take some rice out of a/the sack for a/the child.' b. A-alis-in ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa bata. DUR-take.out-PV GEN woman SPEC rice LOC sack for LOC child 'A/the woman will take the rice out of a/the sack for a/the child.' c. A-alis-an ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata. DUR-take.out-LV GEN woman NPIV rice SPEC sack for LOC child 'A/the woman will take some rice out of the sack for a/the child.' d. Ipag-alis ng babae ng bigas sa sako ang bata. CV-take.out GEN woman NPIV rice LOC sack SPEC child 'A/the woman will take some rice out of a/the sack for the child.' 2 There has been considerable debate in the literature regarding what, if anything, can be considered the subject in Philippine-type symmetrical voice languages in particular, see e.g.

national taiwan university Causatives have been subjected to intensive scrutiny by linguists in recent years. Cross-linguistic studies suggest that the formation of causatives re³ects the real world perception of cause-result relations, though some studies contradict this ²nding. The aim of this study is to explore the underlying principles that determine the way an event is encoded linguistically in Saisiyat, a Formosan language. Following Croft's model of idealized single events, we promote the study of causatives to the discourse level. The results show that the iconicity of language is re³ected in the ordering of linguistic elements as well as their grammatical integrity. 1. This work, especially its theoretical background, is based on a report submitted to the National Science Council, and was thus partially supported by grants NSC 91-2411-H-002-090.

What does one learn when one acquires the grammar of a language? Most child language researchers would probably say that one learns systems of grammatical morphology and synbactic constructions, as described in terms of the researcher's preferred grammatical model. It would be noted that grammatical forms relate to semantic entities and pragmatic functions, and, depending on the theory, various roles would be allolted to semantics and pragmatics in the learner's construction of the granlmar. Here I wish to propose that the child acquires more than a system of grammatical forms and semantic/communicabive functions. In acquiring the grammar of a particular language, the child comes to adopt a particular framework for schematizing erperience. That is to say, the grammabical system also expresses meanings. These meanings are of a general sort, in contrast with the specific contents of lexical items. Grammatical meanings apply across all possible lexical contents, putting the specific confent of any particular sentence into a framework of bemporal and spatial relations, modality, voice, illocutionary force, and so forth. Much recent work in the emerging field of cognitiue linguistics is concerned with the conceptual side of grammar. [n an important paper on the semantics of grammar, under the title of "The relation of grammar to cognition," Leonard Talmy proposes that: The grammatical specifications in a sentence... provide a conceptual framework, or, imagistically, a skeletal structure or scaffolding, [or the conceptual maberial that is lexically specified. Comparing a number of languages, Talmy concludes that, universally, grammar expresses a restricted set of general notions that make up what he calls ttthe basic schematic framework for conceptual organization within the cognitive domain of language." This is a framework for locating objects and events in space and time, lrom given perspective points, and with given force-dynamic contours of events. Albhough languages exhibit great diversity within these broad outlines, Talmy has succeeded in drawing out the cognitive unity thab underlies crosslinguistic diversity. His work points to a universal set of conceptual systems that are basic to human cognition, and specialized for verbal expression by means of grammatical devices. Here, however, I wish to focus on the diuersity within that unity, rabher than on the cognibive universals. Briefly, I want to propose that a special kind of thinking is called into play, on-line, in the process of speaking in a particular language. For almost two centuries-going back to the work of Wilhelm von Humboldt in bhe 1820s-anthropologically-oriented linguists have asked whebher linguistic diversity implies

This study examines how properties of path (the trajectory of motion) and manner (how an action is performed) components of motion events are reflected in linguistic and nonlinguistic motion event conceptualization in a path-focused language, Turkish. In two experiments, we investigated how path and manner differed in salience (i.e., prominence) and ease of expression (EoE, i.e., effort of describing), and how these factors were related to lexicalization and similarity judgments of motion events. In Experiment 1, participants rated motion events based on path and manner salience and EoE and expressed path and manner in a written format. Results indicated that manner was rated as more salient and path as easier to express. Path salience and EoE were related to both types (i.e., number of different expressions) and the total number of paths and manners used. However, manner EoE but not salience was associated with only types and the total number of manners used. In Experiment 2, parti...

Previous research has shown that native language can have an effect on speakers’ general cognitive processes for example when it comes to figure-ground orientation (Tajima & Duffield, 2012), source evidence information (Tosun et al. 2013) and grammatical gender (Boroditsky et al. 2003). The current paper contributes to this body of research and presents a study investigating whether structural characteristics of English and Japanese affect speakers’ ability to recall details from photos.

Examining written narratives in Cebuano, Payne (1994, also cited in Croft 2001) claims that Cebuano Patient-Focus (PF) gi-verb constructions that have an O-A word order have been reinterpreted as Passive constructions, since the Os are found to be highly topical and

This paper investigates the preferred argument structure in Tsou, and the extent to which such a preference pattern is shaped by the interaction among mention type, valency role and activation status. Two significant findings emerge from the data. Strikingly, Ss and Os in discourse are not the most preferred loci for introducing new information. In addition, lexical NPs in Tsou are not a dispreferred form for encoding given information, and pronominals are restricted to occurring only with specific valency roles. Since lexical As are shown to occur with a higher proportion than those in other languages, they cannot strictly be said to be avoided in Tsou discourse. The morphosyntactic properties in Tsou are argued to add a critical fourth dimension to the three-way interaction of mention type, valency role and activation status to shape the final form of preferred argument structure in discourse.

The language of motion events is a system used to specify the motion of objects through space with respect to other objects. Recent research has shown that languages differ in the relative saliency of manner or path they focus on in motion event descriptions. These can be thought of as different strategies dedicated to specifying the spatial relationship between objects in motion and the landmark object. We propose a four-way typology based on the narrative data from six western Austronesian languages. Evidence is presented that each of the languages examined typically has a preferred strategy for describing motion events and that each has a distinct narrative style. These six languages are shown to share the commonality of giving greater attention to path information in motion events. Path salience in the encoding of motion clauses appears to exhibit a strong diachronic stability, suggesting that Proto-Austronesian was probably also a path-salient language.

The non-agent focus constructions in Formosan languages can be fruitfully interpreted as a species of the applicative construction which functions to derive transitive clauses from intransitive or transitive clauses. The O argument NPs in these transitive clauses are shown to exhibit a split O phenomenon based principally on the nature of verbal semantics and secondarily on discourse-pragmatic considerations: the nominative NP of a PF clause encodes a patient object, that of the LF clauses an abstract location, and that of the RF clauses a transported theme. Other functions of RF clauses are shown to be secondary to and derivable from this more spatial notion via pragmatic inferencing. This paper treads new ground by integrating the semantics of focus into cognitive grammar and typological approaches. Thus all of the coding patterns for the O arguments together form a semantic space, which then constrains possible coding patterns for language-specific constructions, and allows for predictions about the interaction of these applicative clauses.