Morphological theory

In this proposed study we are to investigate the variations in the geometry of the stenosis that exists at the bending regions in the left coronary artery with the basis of idealized 3D simulated artery models. Understanding the effects of plaque morphological characteristics such as the severity of stenosis, location, and eccentricity index is the main motive of this study. Atherosclerotic plaque severity is generally considered an indicator of cardiovascular diseases. However, the occurrence or probability of heart attack is not determined only by the stenosis severity. In fact, besides plaque severity, other local factors such as the location, bending regions, angle variations, and eccentricity of the plaques also play a vital role in such cases. Here, we have demonstrated the effects of stenosis based on its geometry and what impact it has on arterial flow patterns. We have shown the association of lesion eccentricity with other hemodynamic factors. The changes in the hemodynamic parameters have shed light on the conditions of left coronary artery stenosis at different locations of the artery, which is responsible for cardiovascular disease in human patients. To evaluate these effects, twelve computer-generated 3D artery models are considered. In these idealized models, we have considered three factors: bifurcation angle, stenosis degree, and eccentricity index of the plaque. Among the first seven are with a bifurcation angle of degrees with one healthy model and eccentric and concentric stenosis of 25%, 50%, and 75% severity and the other seven are of 70° angular bifurcation with the same stenosis severity and geometry. Here, we have used open-source software for 3D model construction, mesh and grid generation, and hemodynamic simulations. From the resulting data we have analyzed significant changes in the behavior of arterial blood flow, for example, velocity profile, Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR), and Wall Shear Stress (WSS). Finally, these findings of variations in the stenosed bifurcated geometry will provide a more concise insight for a more specific assessment of those plaques that are vulnerable to cause coronary heart disease.

In this study, I parameterize the five tests proposed by Stevens (2005) for characterizing an element as an affixoid and formulate ten criteria for prefixation. Using these criteria, I analyze the morphological status of the initial components of Modern Greek words beginning with pale- and paʎo-. Contrary to Giannoulopoulou’s (1999) analysis of paleo- as a “confix” and paʎo- as a “stem”, I argue that pale- is a stem that has two allomorphic realizations: pale~paʎ. pale- is marked as [+learnèd] and paʎ- as [-learnèd]. While paʎo- historically derives from pale-, it has acquired a distinct morphological status and should now be considered a prefixoid. The ten criteria I present could serve as a model for determining the morphological status of initial elements in other Greek morphological structures and potentially in other languages where this status is ambiguous. Finally, I propose that prefixation in Greek differs from that in word-based languages. In Greek, prefixation is not a case of morphologization; rather, prefixes originate in and remain confined to the morphological domain.

EN: Prefixoids are the left-most elements attaching to roots or stems, which emerge from lexemes, and behave like derivational or inflectional affixes tending to slightly grammaticalize to a limited extent, showing an increase in productivity. In Turkish, certain adjectival constituents of the ADJ+N type compounds like ana 'lit. mother=PFmain, PFprimary' as in anafikir 'gist', baş 'lit. head=PFmain' as in başkent 'capitol', or ön 'lit. front=PFpre-' as in ön(-)basım 'pre-edition' show this tendency and are used productively to name concepts by behaving like prefixoids in spontaneous naming needs to fill the lexical gaps. Thus, though Turkish does not have an established prefixation mechanism typologically, these elements give rise to a blurry and controversial territory between compounding and prefixation. In the present study, such adjectival constituents will be investigated within the continuum between compounding and affixation, and it will be advocated that these constituents are at the very beginning of a morphologization/grammaticalization process.

TR: Önekimsiler, sözcükbirimlerden ortaya çıkarak kök ya da gövdelere eklenip en sola bitişen öğelerdir ve türetkenlikte bir artış göstererek sınırlı ölçüde kısmen dilbilgiselleşme eğiliminde olan türetim ya da çekim ekleri gibi davranırlar. Türkçede, anafikir, başkent, ön(-)basım gibi SIFAT+AD tipi bileşiklerin bazı sıfat bileşenleri bu eğilimi gösterir ve bu bileşenle sözlüksel boşlukları doldurmak için anlık adlandırma ihtiyaçlarında önekler gibi davranır, ayrıca kavramları adlandırmak için türetken bir şekilde kullanılır. Dolayısıyla Türkçe tipolojik olarak yerleşik bir önekleme mekanizmasına sahip olmasa da bu unsurlar birleştirme ve önekleme arasında bulanık ve tartışmalı bir alan ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, bu tür sıfat bileşenleri birleşme ve ekleşme arasındaki süreklilik içinde incelenecek ve bu bileşenlerin bir biçimbilgiselleşme/dilbilgiselleşme sürecinin en başında olduğu savunulacaktır.

The present study investigates the relationship between morphological structure and word meaning with respect to the associative vs. dissociative account of derivational morphology in Modern Greek. To this end, we conducted an online lexical decision task employing the immediate cross-modal priming paradigm with 48 adult native speakers. Ninety prime–target pairs, each comprising a (derived/pseudo-derived) suffixed verb or adjective as auditory prime and its (real/putative) noun-base as visual target, were equally distributed in 3 critical semantic transparency conditions (i.e., transparent, e.g., viðóno–víða ‘to screw’–‘screw’; semitransparent, e.g., psaróno–psári ‘to psych out’–‘fish’; opaque, e.g., skotóno–skótos ‘to kill’–‘dark’). Reaction time analyses revealed statistically significant and equivalent priming in the transparent and semitransparent condition, yet no priming at all in the opaque condition. This dichotomous priming pattern (opaque ≠ semitransparent = transparent) implies that the observed effect is neither purely formal nor purely semantic, but rather morphosemantic. In particular, the locus of priming seems to be situated in the morphologically shared prime–target stem that is recognized as a genuine morpheme (combining both form and meaning) to the same extent in the transparent as well as the semitransparent pairs, though it is not recognized in the opaque pairs. Thus, our experimental findings suggest that morphological structure depends crucially on word meaning, underpinning an associative account of derivational morphology, according to which semantically transparent and semitransparent derivatives are considered as [+constructed] words, while semantically opaque derivatives and pseudo-derivatives are treated as [–constructed] words.

The article deals with irregularities in the morphological make-up of Italian verbal forms, focusing on perfect and past participle forms. It aims to account for root-based contextual allomorphy in the framework of Distributed Morphology (Halle & Marantz 1993). Building upon the generalisation that morphological irregularities result whenever the thematic vowel is absent, the article provides a synchronic account and a diachronic analysis by means of a restricted set of morphophonological rules, thus challenging both the traditional view, according to which morphological irregularities follow from stress positioning, and paradigm-based accounts.

The use of expressions something similar/something like that/and the like is a pervasive feature of spoken natural language, and thus must be accounted for if we hope to develop a semantic account of dialogue. These expressions exhibit an anaphoric type dependency, but at the semanticpragmatic level rather than the syntactic level. The meaning of these utterances depends upon the context of utterance: if the meaning of the utterance is regardedas fixed, then utterances which intuitively are coherent receive incoherent interpretations. To model what happens with utterances containing these phrases, we require both a formal theory of discourse structure, and accessibility to the lexicon.

In this Special Issue, we explore how Diachronic Construction Morphology (DCxM) can best provide a framework for understanding morphological change in typologically diverse languages. We are particularly interested in similarities and differences between inflectional and derivational change from a constructional perspective, in understanding how morphological constructions are organised paradigmatically, in changes in productivity of morphological schemas and in the relation between morphological change and category change. Further, this issue addresses parallels between morphological change and change elsewhere in the constructicon, e.g. in changes to argument structure constructions, or the development of future constructions.

Taking into account some general definitions of compounds found in the pertinent linguistic literature and their frequent syntactic features (such as fixed order and recursiveness) we have analysed and investigated semantic compositionality and some other features pertaining to these linguistic items. Furthermore, we have drawn attention to the possibility of implementing certain criteria in connection with the distribution of noncanonical compound constituents. It has been pointed out that distributional evidence is applicable for English non-canonical compounds in electrical engineering discourse. Moreover, distribution is used as an indicator of lexical integrity of these linguistic items. Apart from fairly clear cases, different examples of English non-canonical compounds taken from the specialised discourse of electrical engineering have been examined by way of illustration and certain results of our analysis have been presented.

Morphology and Syntax are very important studies in learning English. Morphology learns about how the words are structured and how they are put together from smaller part. It can be considered as the grammar of words. Meanwhile, Syntax discusses how the sentence is structured. The objectives of the research are to find out inflectional morphemes, derivational morphemes, and the patterns of clause structure which are found in political news on online Tempo in January 2019. This research used qualitative design and content analysis design where the source of data was article political news on Online Tempo in January, 2019. The major instrument of this research is the researchers themselves because they actively obtained and clustered the data and the secondary data was data sheet. The findings revealed three types of morphosyntactic, firstly, the researchers found 5 patterns of inflectional morpheme with 26 words. The most dominant pattern of inflectional morpheme was singular changin...

In Construction Morphology (CM), a compound is treated as a construction at the word level with a systematic correlation between its form and meaning, in the sense that any change in the form is accompanied by a change in the meaning. Compound words are coined by compounding templates which are called abstract schemas in CM. These abstract constructional schemas generalize over sets of existing compound words and specify how new compound words can be created. The schemas dominate the compounds so that they inherit all predictable morphological and semantic properties from these schemas. Also, CM adopts a paradigmatic approach to word formation, that is, the creation of new compound words is caused by the extension of a systematic form-meaning relationship in a set of existing compound words to new cases resulting in new compounds. Regarding these properties of CM, This paper studies Persian compound nouns in the framework of Construction Morphology. From this perspective, two types ...

In the present study, we attempted to specify the constructional schemas relevant to the compounds made by the present stem ‘sāz’ in Persian within the framework of the construction morphology (Booij, 2010). To this end, 150 compounds were brought together from numerous sources, such as the Persian Corpus of Bijankhan, Persian novels as well as some Persian websites. Having collected the data, we tabulated and categorized them on the basis of the preverbal elements. Afterwards, a comparison was made, as a result of which it was indicated that there can be a general constructional schema inside which 5 sub-schemas can be placed. Certainly, the broad schema denotes the construction by which a noun (preverbal element) is combined with the verbal element (present stem sāz) to create an adjective that implies the agent of an action, namely the agent of building or making an object. However, there were two exceptions among the whole dataset: a compound in spite of resembling the other compounds regarding its construction denotes the semantic role of patient: dastsāz (handmade), referring to an object which is made by hands as well as the compound ʤāsāz (embedded object), whereas in other compounds, the stem means the agent that builds, creates or makes. Consequently, as might be expected, two broad constructional schemas have been obtained: one relevant to the agents and the other relevant to patients.

The paper borrows the concept of (non)concatenation from morphology and applies it to wordformation patterns both within and outside the scope of derivational morphology, arguing at the same time for a broader, lexicological approach to lexeme-formation (as a model of vocabulary expansion) than that identifying word-formation with derivational morphology. It arrives at the conclusion that the binary division of lexeme-formation into either concatenative or nonconcatenative patterns does not reflect the character of many patterns accurately enough.

Quoi de plus simple que la réduplication ? /olɨ/ « il est content », /olɨolɨ/ « il est très content » (exemple émérillon rapporté par F. Rose 1). Sous son apparence de simplicité, le phénomène soulève néanmoins nombre de questions, au croisement de la phonologie, de la morpho-syntaxe et de la sémantique. Selon les langues, voire à l'intérieur d'une même langue, la réduplication peut prendre différentes formes-redoublement partiel ou total du terme-, affecter une ou plusieurs catégories grammaticales-nom, verbe, qualifiant, quantifiant-et remplir différentes fonctions. Afin de dresser un inventaire des valeurs qu'elle peut prendre, et de rechercher si les différentes valeurs recensées peuvent être ramenées à certains dénominateurs communs, le présent volume réunit des travaux divers à plusieurs titres. Par leur objet d'étude, tout d'abord : langues des Amériques, d'Asie, d'Afrique ou d'Europe. Mais également par les approches et points de vue théoriques adoptés. Au fil de l'ouvrage se dessinent des réponses aux questions telles que celle du lien entre formes et valeurs : un certain gabarit phonologique (par exemple la réduplication à l'identique d'un mot entier) est-il préférentiellement associé à une certaine valeur sémantique qui se retrouverait dans des langues diverses ? Cette question débouche sur d'autres interrogations générales : la présence d'emplois spécialisés de la réduplication dans une langue, par exemple une valeur d'itération, une ou plusieurs valeurs modales, aspectuelles et temporelles, s'accompagne-t-elle nécessairement d'un éventail de gabarits phonologiques distincts, chacun correspondant à l'un des emplois ? Dans quelle mesure le degré de complexité du signifié coïncide-t-il avec le degré de complexité du signifiant ? La partie du discours concernée (catégorie

This paper provides evidence that the inveterate way of assessing linguistic items' degrees of analysability by calculating their derivation to base frequency ratios may obfuscate the difference between two meaning processing models: one based on the principle of compositionality and another on the principle of parsability. I propose to capture the difference between these models by estimating the ratio of two transitional probabilities for complex words: P (affix | base) and P (base | affix). When transitional probabilities are comparably low, each of the elements entering into combination is equally free to vary. The combination itself is judged by speakers to be semantically transparent, and its derivational element tends to be more linguistically productive. In contrast, multi-morphemic words that are characterised by greater discrepancies between transitional probabilities are similar to collocations in the sense that they also consist of a node (conditionally independent element) and a collocate (conditionally dependent element). Such linguistic expressions are also considered to be semantically complex but appear less transparent because the collocate's meaning does not coincide with the meaning of the respective free element (even if it exists) and has to be parsed out from what is available.

Word formation in Albanian studies represents many problems that have been identified not only in university level but even in the pre-university one. This paper intends to examine the concept of the head as part of the word formation process, as this is a term, which is not encountered in the Albanian traditional studies. It will be introduced in this study from the perspective of the generative grammar theory. The aim of this paper is to discuss and argue about the similarity of the process and of the terminology when used at the syntactic and morphological level. Furthermore, there will be introduced some criteria based on which the head is defined at each level, and by providing arguments that some of these criteria are not applied at both levels. Then, it will be examined how the term head is applied at the morphological level, by describing its features when it is a derivational morpheme, or when it is the root/base form.  Finally, two ways of approaching word-formation will b...

don't look at compounds in this paper, a complex topic with a large literature. The meaning of compounds is virtually never semantically compositional, requiring pragmatics, at a minimum, to determine the relevant relation between their component parts (see Bezuidenhout 2019). 3 There are two kinds of functors, a point which will be of interest in Sect. 3 on delimiting the domain of non-compositional content: (i) categorizers (nominal, verbal, adjectival) which may be phonologically realized by various affixes, including '-tion', '-ize', '-al', and (ii) functional items that project further levels of structure like the determiners (e.g. 'the') and number (e.g. plural) for nominal structures; or tense (e.g. past) and aspect (e.g. the perfective/imperfective contrast, as in 'has eaten the apple' vs. 'was eating the apple') for verbal structures. (2017) for a clear account of developments within the lexicalist approach and of the issues that led to a radical redrawing of the lexicon/syntax boundary on constructivist and other root-based accounts.

This collection of papers on phrasal compounds is part of a bigger project whose aims are twofold: First, it seeks to broaden the typological perspective by providing data for as many different languages as possible to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon itself. Second, based on these data, which clearly show interaction between syntax and morphology, it aims to discuss theoretical models which deal with this kind of interaction in different ways. For example, models like Generative Grammar assume components of grammar and a clearcut distinction between the lexicon (often including morphology) and grammar which mostly stands for the computational system (syntax). Other models, like construction grammar do not assume such components and are rather based on a lexicon including constructs. A comparison of these models makes it then possible to assess their explanatory power. The field of morphology and syntax started to acknowledge the existence of phrasal compounds predominantly in the context of Lexicalist theories because a number of authors realised that they are not easy to handle in models of linguistic theory which demarcate the lexicon (morphology) from syntax. Commenting on Carola Trips & Jaklin Kornfilt. Further insights into phrasal compounding. In Carola Trips & Jaklin Kornfilt (eds.), Further investigations into the nature of phrasal compounding, 1-11. Berlin: Language Science Press.

In this paper, we compare Modern Greek nominal compounds to their Turkish counterparts and reveal that Modern Greek nominal compounds under investigation are morphological while Turkish ones are syntactically built. Based on this, we offer an explanation for the availability of phrasal compounds in Turkish but not in Modern Greek: phrase-level items can be involved in syntactic compounds, but not in morphological compounds involving solely morphological items. The study reveals that the locus of compound formation is not confined to a single module both cross-linguistically and within a language, but the locus of a specific type of compound in a language entails whether or not phrasal compounds with the same compound structure can also occur in that specific language.

We present evidence from two picture-matching experiments that native adult speakers of American English order and interpret sequences of nouns modified by adjectives and relative clauses containing adjectives in line with the RECURSIVE SET-SUBSET ORDERING PRINCIPLE proposed in Bleotu & Roeper (2022a, b) and Bleotu, Foucault & Roeper (2023). This principle ensures an automatic mapping of setsubset semantics to a recursive syntax in Universal Grammar, such that set modifiers are merged closer to the noun than subset modifiers: leaves (N) that are short (SET) that are long (SUBSET) or short (SET) leaves (N) that are long (SUBSET). We here expand upon the interpretation and ordering of set-subset modification to elucidate the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic interface.

This collection of papers on phrasal compounds is part of a bigger project whose aims are twofold: First, it seeks to broaden the typological perspective by providing data for as many different languages as possible to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon itself. Second, based on these data, which clearly show interaction between syntax and morphology, it aims to discuss theoretical models which deal with this kind of interaction in different ways. For example, models like Generative Grammar assume components of grammar and a clearcut distinction between the lexicon (often including morphology) and grammar which mostly stands for the computational system (syntax). Other models, like construction grammar do not assume such components and are rather based on a lexicon including constructs. A comparison of these models makes it then possible to assess their explanatory power. The field of morphology and syntax started to acknowledge the existence of phrasal compounds predominantly in the context of Lexicalist theories because a number of authors realised that they are not easy to handle in models of linguistic theory which demarcate the lexicon (morphology) from syntax. Commenting on Carola Trips & Jaklin Kornfilt. Further insights into phrasal compounding. In Carola Trips & Jaklin Kornfilt (eds.), Further investigations into the nature of phrasal compounding, 1-11. Berlin: Language Science Press.

Learners in secondary schools ought to be provided with a learning environment which results in effective reading skills. Nature of class facilitates achievement in reading skills through group work, scaffold, motivation and enacting scripts. This study adopted social constructivism in a quasi-experimental design to establish influence of nature of class on achievement in reading skills in secondary schools. Data was collected from learners, n=205 (experimental groups), n=221 (control groups) and 19 teachers for a period of 8 weeks. Reading skills assessment tests, questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions were used to collect data. The findings revealed a statistically significant relationship between nature of class and achievement in reading skills with p=0.00. The findings in regard to statistical analysis revealed nature of class had a significant impact on achievement in reading skills and interactive classroom environment would be valuable in the teaching and learni...

The morpho-syntactic structure of Semitic languages, traditionally seen as based on abstract root morphemes, has been analysed by some as being fully word based. Others have proposed a root-based system which allows for wordbased derivation as well. A distinction between word-based and root-based morphosyntactic derivations has previously been posited in both morpho-syntactic and lexical semantic literature. Under this distinction the semantic and phonological access to a root morpheme during morpho-syntactic construction is fully available in a root-based derivation, but is restricted by the category bearing head in a wordbased derivation. However, there has to date been no behavioural evidence for the distinction, and it is by no means universally accepted that words are morphemically decomposable into root morphemes. The current study utilized a masked priming experimental paradigm of word recognition in an attempt to differentiate root-based derivation from word-based derivation in Hebrew, proposing an analogy between availability under Marantz (2000) and Arad (2003), and linkage within the mental lexicon model under Frost et al. (2005). The results strongly support the proposed analogy, and the cognitive reality of the root morpheme as the basis of Hebrew morphological derivation. In addition they provide a first experimental verification of the theoretically motivated distinction between root derivation and word derivation.

Cet article a fait l'objet d'une présentation lors de la Journée Phonologie : théorie et variation (Toulouse, 26 novembre 1999) organisée par J. Durand et L. Molinu. Je remercie les participants à cette journée de leurs observations et de leurs suggestions. Merci aussi à J. Durand, E. Gomez-Imbert, C. Lyche et N. Serna d'avoir bien voulu amender la version écrite. Les erreurs qui demeurent sont de moi.

This is the second set of five articles selected from the workshop on affix ordering in typologically different languages that Stela Manova and Bogdan Szymanek organized at the 13th International Morphology Meeting in Vienna in February 2008. In the previous issue, as editors we set out the basic questions facing any attempt to model affix order, with special attention to the factors that may in principle be responsible for any particular order: essentially a typology of affix order (Manova and Aronoff 2010). We also reviewed the literature on affix order over the previous quarter century or so. We will not repeat here what we said in our introduction to the last issue, although we believe that our remarks are still apt and accordingly direct the reader there for detailed scene-setting. In this issue we present five more articles on problems of affix order. In the previous issue, all five articles were devoted to hierarchical ordering in a single language. The current set is thematically more diverse, although each of the five articles again treats a single language. Broadly speaking, though, we may say that all these articles share a common sensibility: that doing linguistics involves three distinct, though not always entirely separable enterprises: theory, description, and analysis. They are inseparable to the extent that one cannot describe or analyze data without some kind of (perhaps implicit) theory and every theory is constructed to deal with a particular type of phenomenon to be described and analyzed. What unites all the articles here is the principle that none of these three enterprises exists in a vacuum. We do not describe languages merely because of their contribution to linguistic theory or because we

Urban morphology studies put forward how different elements work
together and change the shape of the city, and provide information to understand the contrasts and coexistence of the city between continuity and change. The antecedents of urban morphology field has shown that urban morphology is initially based on the cultural landscape perspective as the overarching framework to explore urban landscape. However, morphogenetic approach, typomorphology studies and space syntax studies do not consider unbuilt elements as a layer of the urban landscape. This study sheds light on exploration for a desired but unattainable holistic approach in urban morphology through reintroducing the cultural landscape perspective. By recalling geographer J.B. Jackson's composite formal combinations based on the cultural landscape perspective, this chapter focuses on land division and use, street systems and land use and public spaces for a unity of built and unbuilt spaces in urban space.

The vital significance of settlement morphology is typically overlooked in the design professions, often resorting to abstract configurations lacking any conceivable relationship with the site's underlying morphology. As the introduction to a chapter in my dissertation, this essay redresses this oversight in principle.

The implication of curriculum 2013, the song is one of the topics to achieve the goal of learning. Learning through song emphasizes that the teacher should know the best song choice based on the axiology and semantic meaning. Not all the song can be as material for students. The teacher should evaluate based on level of the students. a song, there were a meaning that would be expressed and moral values so that it will be interested to find out what the songs lyric want to deliver. Some people often sing a song without know the explicit and implicit meaning of the lyric. There was also an existence of value. This research focuses (1) to analyze the lexical and contextual meaning in song lyric and (2) to know the implication of values that found in 7 years lyric by Lukas Graham (2) to evaluate 7 years whether or not to be as teaching material. This research used descriptive qualitative method. The object of the research was 7 years by Lukas Graham. The researcher found lyric and analy...

Our paper investigates how zero-affixed verbal forms (specifically, denominal and deadjectival verbs) are processed by native speakers of Italian during visual word recognition. More specifically, we verify whether, and possibly to what extent, the processing of such forms differs from or resembles the processing of verbs resulting from two other productive word formation schemas in Italian, i. e., suffixation and parasynthesis. The interest of such a comparison lies in the fact that the three considered schemas behave similarly from a functional point of view, i. e.: i) they all change the category of the base, ii) they select the same base category (nouns and adjectives), and iii) they show similar semantic characteristics. However, this shared function is realized by means of different formal exponents (both overt and covert) which might imply different degrees of complexity. Crucially, suffixation and parasynthesis display an overt derivational marking, while zero-affixation obv...

Urban morphology is a thriving field of enquiry involving researchers from a wide diversity of disciplinary, linguistic and cultural backgrounds. While this diversity has helped advance our understanding of the complexity of urban form, confusion and controversy has also arisen over the various theoretical formulations forwarded by researchers from different philosophical and epistemological backgrounds. With the aim of improving intelligibility in the field, this paper proposes a straightforward scheme to identify, classify and interpret, or ‘map’, individual contributions to the study of urban form according to their respective theoretical or epistemological perspectives. Drawing upon epistemological discussions familiar to the readers of this journal, the authors first distinguish between cognitive and normative studies. A second distinction is made between internalist studies that consider urban form as a relatively independent system, and externalist studies in which urban form...

When a new form is inserted in an existing townscape, its consonance within the urban fabric is dependent on the level of attention paid to the evaluation and management of its architectural elements. However, despite the established principles and methods of urban morphology that enable the systematic analysis of the built environment, a formula for ensuring that new development relates to its context so as to achieve congruent outcomes is still lacking. This paper proposes a new method of evaluating and measuring architectural elements within evolving urban forms, with particular emphasis on a three-dimensional study of buildings. In a case study, detailed mapping of both current and past forms provides the basis for evincing predominant characteristics that have changed over time. Using this method, it is possible to demonstrate objectively how the townscape has been affected through changes in its architectural configuration.

A standard analysis of coordination assumes the coordination schema XP → XP CONJ XP mapping onto a hybrid f-structure – containing both a set of f-structures and the nondistributive CONJ and (resolved) agreement features: ... (1) Jose Jose y and yo I hablamos. speak.PRES.1PL ... (3) For any distributive property P and set s, P(s) iff ∀f ∈ sP(f). For any nondistributive property P and set s, P(s) iff P holds of s itself. (Dalrymple and Kaplan, 2000) ... Dalrymple and Kaplan (2000) propose a mechanism for syntactic feature resolution of the non-distributive ...

The developmental nature of second language acquisition research has resulted in various and at times seemingly contradictory theories, methods and approaches. In 2005, Rod Ellis published his Principles of Instructed Language Learning, which he considered to be a set of teaching generalisations that could stimulate debate and reflection among teachers in the post-methods era (Richards Rodgers, 2014). The purpose of this study was to investigate Elliss principles in terms of their perceived relevance and applicability in an adult EFL learning environment. In order to achieve this aim, a mixed methods research approach was utilised. Separate questionnaires were administered to seventy-one students and eight teachers employed in the English Language Department of a Training Institute in Doha, Qatar. Additionally, thirteen students participated in two single sex focus group sessions. The results revealed consensus between students and teachers regarding the importance they placed on so...

The Deverbal Nominal Construction of modern Italian belongs to a class of phenomena that present interesting theoretical challenges given their ambiguous status between morphological compounding and syntax. In this paper, we combine evidence from corpora and a systematic elicitation experiment to propose that Deverbal Nominal Constructions are actually a spurious class, including both true compounds and constructions that belong to the impoverished syntax of telegraphic language, signs and headlines. Besides providing results that allow us to maintain a stronger view of the separation of morpho-lexical and syntactic phenomena, the study also serves as a general illustration of how empirical methods from corpus analysis and psycholinguistics can be brought to bear on issues of interest to the general theory of language.

La formation des gentilés, particulièrement sensible aux contraintes d'euphonie, permet de mettre en évidence, pour le français, deux manifestations complémentaires de la contrainte dissimilative. L'une, négative, tend à éviter la consécution à faible distance du même phonème ou de deux phonèmes proches. Elle explique la sous-représentation des deux principaux suffixes,-ais et-ois, après une accroche en sifflante, à cause de la sifflante contenue par le suffixe au féminin, ainsi que la sous-représentation de-ais après /E/ et de-ois après /A/. L'autre, positive, favorise entre les voyelles une harmonie fondée sur les contrastes. Devant les suffixes dont la voyelle est une voyelle d'avant moyenne ou haute (-ais,-ain,-in,-ier...), sont privilégiés les radicaux dont la dernière voyelle est une voyelle d'arrière moyenne ou basse, et de préférence un /O/ plutôt qu'un /A/. Devant les suffixes dont la voyelle est une voyelles d'arrière moyenne ou basse (-ois,-ot,-on,-and,-at,-ard...), sont privilégiés les radicaux dont la dernière voyelle est une voyelle d'avant moyenne ou haute, et de préférence un /i/ plutôt qu'un /E/. Pour cela, un yod au contact du suffixe joue le même rôle qu'un /i/ dans la syllabe précédente. Cette harmonie est obtenue soit par la sélection du suffixe, soit par un aménagement-substitution, épenthèse, troncation, insertion d'un interfixe, etc.-du radical fourni par la base. On observe d'autre part une harmonisation de l'accroche consonantique du radical avec la voyelle du suffixe. Devant-ois, sont privilégiées les attaques en labiale ou en vélaire, en accord avec le double caractère du /w/ propre à ce suffixe. Devant-ais et-ain, ce sont les attaques en dentale. Devant-ot,-on,-and,-at,-ard, la tendance à rapprocher l'articulation de la consonne de celle de la voyelle peut aller jusqu'aux vélaires mais elle s'arrête souvent aux palatales à cause de la rareté des moyens offerts par les vélaires en français et de la contrainte portant sur les voyelles, qui privilégie devant ces suffixes une attaque en yod.

This article suggests an analysis of the N after N construction, exemplified by question after question, along the lines of the tripartite parallel theory advanced by Jackendoff (1997, 2002). It will be observed that the construction manifests a syntax-semantics mismatch: a singular noun in syntax but a bare plural noun in semantics. This mismatch is argued to be due to a correspondence rule that associates syntactically subordinate structure with semantically coordinate structure. It will be also shown that the analysis is applicable to the N ni-tugu N construction, the Japanese counterpart to the N after N construction.

Dalam pembelajaran bahasa asing atau bahasa kedua seringkali dijumpai kesulitan yang dilakukan oleh pembelajar. Kesulitan tersebut antara lain disebabkan oleh adanya perbedaan antara bahasa asing yang dipelajari (L2) dengan bahasa ibu pembelajar (L1). Terdapat kesalahan pembelajar yang dipengaruhi oleh L1.   Kesalahan-kesalahan tersebut bisa terjadi pada bidang fonologi, kosa kata, dan tata bahasa (Breadsmore, 1982). Perbedaan ini menyebabkan kesalahan-kesalahan dalam penggunaan L2 oleh pembelajar. Hal ini menunjukkan pengaruh dari L1 terhadap pemerolehan L2 (Ellis in Bhela, 1999). Penelitian ini bertujuan menganalisa pengaruh bahasa ibu terhadap bahasa Inggris mahasiswa program studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya, Universitas Udayana, bahasa Bali dianggap sebagai bahasa Ibu mahasiswa.  Kedua bahasa akan dibandingkan untuk menganalisa perbedaan dan persamaan diantara keduanya. Responden dalam penelitian adalah mahasiswa semester dua Program Studi Sastra Inggris yang akan dian...

The aim of this study is to present a unified analysis of the dative structures. The study relies on data from English and Arabic that support "the single meaning approach". According to this approach, both prepositional dative construction (PDC) and double object construction (DOC) are related semantically and syntactically. We propose a dative phrase "DATP" as a complement of the dative verb in both PDC and DOC. Our proposed analysis deals with the restrictions that scope and c-command bring on the order of the direct and indirect objects in PDC and DOC. We follow Bruening (2014, 2018) in his argument against c-command and show that "precede-and-command" (precede and phase command) that he proposes as a replacement for c-command fits neatly in our analysis.

Iconicity is the motivated relationship between an affix and its position. Two affix-order strategies are recognized: template morphology (stipulated fixed order whereby affixes are assigned to slots) and layered morphology (step-by-step derivation involving semantic scope, as a rule). Meaning is associated with words, affixes, and positions. The iconicity of affix order varies from low (templatic) to high (scopal), with mixed templatic-scopal systems in between. The mirror principle and the relevance principle relate affix order to word order. Scopal ordering is compatible with both principles, templates are not. Affix order systems of many languages, initially analyzed as templatic, have, later when more data became available, been re-analyzed as scopal. A scopal relationship is easier to detect in combinations of two affixes (bigrams) than in longer sequences. Unmotivated affix order patterns, if analyzed in terms of bigrams and trigrams, turn out to be regular patterns. Affix order tends to be iconic.

Anderson (2008) emphasizes that the space of possible grammars must be constrained by limits not only on what is cognitively representable, but on what is learnable. Focusing on word final deletion in Yidiny (Dixon 1977a), I show that the learning of exceptional phonological patterns is improved if we assume that Prince & Tesar's (2004) Biased Constraint Demotion (BCD) with Constraint Cloning (Pater 2009) is subject to a Morphological Coherence Principle (MCP), which operationalizes morphological analytic bias (Moreton 2008) during phonological learning. The existence of the MCP allows the initial state of Con to be simplified, and thus shifts explanatory weight away from the representation of the grammar per se, and towards the learning device.

The support is gratefully acknowledged. S. Manova, Towards a Theory of Conversion in Slavic 2 2. Theoretical framework NM (Dressler et al. 1987; Dressler 1990 & 2000) is a cognitively-oriented theory of morphological organization looking for internal (purely morphological) and external (grammatical evidence outside the morphological level, e.g. from phonology and syntax; functional analysis; evidence from language acquisition, language impairments, language change and language death) motivation of morphological changes. Thus, 'natural' is to be understood as synonymous to cognitively simple, less marked, easily accessible, and universally preferred. The theory consists of the three subtheories of universal naturalness, typological naturalness, and language-specific naturalness. These subtheories interact in a hierarchical fashion in the sense that typological naturalness is a filter of universal naturalness and language-specific naturalness is a filter of typological naturalness, i.e. in case of naturalness conflicts language-specific preferences have precedence. If language-specific parameters are intact, the typological adequacy has precedence over universal naturalness. The subtheory of universal naturalness (Mayerthaler 1987; Dressler 2000) operates with a set of preference parameters, the most important of which is that of iconicity, also called constructional diagrammaticity. Here diagrams are meant as subtypes of icons in the sense of Pierce (1965) 2. According to the parameter of iconicity (constructional diagrammaticity), NM distinguishes five basic morphological techniques (Manova 2003; Manova and Dressler, in press; cf. also Dressler 1987): 1) Addition, i.e. X X + Y, e.g. R. učitel´ 'teacher' FEM učitel´-nica 2) Substitution, i.e. X + Y X + Z, e.g. Bg. irland-ec 'Irishman' FEM irlandka 2 Pierce (1965) distinguishes between three fundamental varieties of semiosis based on different relationships between signans and signatum: icons, indices, and symbols. An icon is a linguistic sign which resembles its signatum in some respect. An index refers to its signatum only by contiguity. A symbol is characterized by a learned convention between signans and signatum. In addition, there are three subtypes of icons: images, diagrams, and metaphors. An image represents the simple qualities of the signatum (e.g. onomatopoeic words). A diagram reflects the similarities between a signans and signatum in respect to the relations of their parts. A metaphor exhibits only some partial similarities between signans and signatum.

The composition of richly-inflected words in morphologically complex languages can be a challenge for language learners developing literacy. Accordingly, Lane and Bird (2020) proposed a finite state approach which maps prefixes in a language to a set of possible completions up to the next morpheme boundary, for the incremental building of complex words. In this work, we develop an approach to morph-based auto-completion based on a finite state morphological analyzer of Plains Cree (nêhiyawêwin), showing the portability of the concept to a much larger, more complete morphological transducer. Additionally, we propose and compare various novel ranking strategies on the morph auto-complete output. The best weighting scheme ranks the target completion in the top 10 results in 64.9% of queries, and in the top 50 in 73.9% of queries.

A basic design feature of language is duality of patterning, the existence of a meaningless level of elements that combine to create meaningful morphemes and words (Hockett 1960). Although the signs of sign languages have iconic origins, Stokoe (1960) showed that sign languages do have a meaningless level, akin to phonology, setting the stage for much subsequent linguistic research on sign languages at all levels (Sandler and Lillo-Martin 2006). Here we show, following Lepic et al. (2016), that part of the phonological structure across sign languages is often motivated by meaning. Specifically, two-handedness is motivated, as are details of structure in two-handed signs previously believed to be strictly phonological and hence meaningless, such as symmetry, dominance, type of movement, and patterns of contact between the two hands. We further develop a templatic model of sign structure (Sandler 1986, 1989) to reveal which aspects of the phonological form in two-handed signs are ofte...