Money

In ancient China, early bronze 'tool money' came to be replaced by round bronze coins that were supplemented by uncoined gold and silver bullion, whereas in the Greco-Roman world, precious-metal coins dominated from the beginnings of coinage. Chinese currency is often interpreted in 'nominalist' terms, and although a 'metallist' perspective used to be common among students of Greco-Roman coinage, putatively fiduciary elements of the Roman currency system are now receiving growing attention. I argue that both the intrinsic properties of coins and the volume of the money supply were the principal determinants of coin value and that fiduciary aspects must not be overrated. These principles apply regardless of whether precious-metal or base-metal currencies were dominant.

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We design and study the behavior of experimental overlapping generations economies in which the government either finances real deficits through seigniorage or allows money supply to grow at a predetermined rate. We provide experimental *The experiment reported in this paper was conducted at the economics laboratory of the Universitat Pompeu Fabra (LeeX). We would like to thank Caries Perarnau and Estela Hopenhayn for their help in performing the experiments, the Spanish Ministry of Education for its financial support (through a DGYCIT grant), Claudia Olivetti for her research assistance and, of course, the UPF undergraduates who acted as experimental subjects. We acknowledge the comments on earlier drafts of the paper from

Drawing on British data from two annual sweeps of the ISSP eight years apart in 1994 and 2002, for modules focusing on 'Family and Changing Gender Roles', this paper examines the extent to which changes in women's labour market participation, changing ideologies/discourses of gender and changing forms of intimate relationships are affecting the ways in which couples organize household money, and the implications of such changes for recent theories of intimate relationships. The analysis indicates that by 2002, the type of relationship respondents had established, together with their social class position, were both independently related to the ways in which they managed money, after controlling for socioeconomic and cultural or discursive factors. Our findings also provide a degree of support for the thesis of a partial decline in the male breadwinner model of gender, as indicated by small declines in the use of the relatively inegalitarian female whole wage and housekeeping allowance systems which were most likely to be used by married couples and cohabiting fathers, expressing relatively traditional ideologies/discourses of breadwinning -and a slight increase in the use of the partial pool, which was most likely to be used by childless cohabiting couples in which male partners expressed less traditional ideologies of breadwinning and women were in middle-class jobs with incomes high enough to facilitate partially separate finances. We also suggest, however, that in so far as cohabiting couples earning different amounts define equality as contributing equally to household expenditure, it is possible that rather than being associated with shifts to greater equality in access to money for personal spending and saving, the partial pool may be associated with marked inequalities, because it may enable gender inequalities generated in the labour market to be more directly transposed into inequalities within households, despite the decline of traditional discourses of male breadwinning and the increasing importance of egalitarian ideologies of co-provisioning.

The structure of a national economy is generally correlated with the stage of economic development. In economic history, it was demonstrated a trend from a first stage when agriculture predominated to last stage when the sector of services is the largest. In this context, the complex relationship between industry and agriculture is analysed. Moreover, a set of models to simulate the structural changes and to quantify their impact on the general process of economic development are proposed. For Romania, as an eastern country prepared to enter in a long transition period, the impact of structural changes could be in the same time profitably but also dramatically. In this way, a number of variants regarding the future impact of structural changes on efficiency, energy and food consumption, quality of life, environment, etc. are comparatively analysed and few measures to be considered by policy makers are proposed.

I. Ïñéóìüò ôïõ åðéóôçìïíéêïý áíôéêåéìÝíïõ êáé ìåèïäïëïãéêÞ ðñïóÝããéóç Ôï íüìéóìá åßíáé ôáõôü÷ñïíá ìßá áðü ôéò óôáèåñÝò ôçò ïéêïíïìßáò, óõìâïëéêü êåöÜëáéï, êáé éäåïëïãéêÞ óõíéóôþóá ìÝóá áðü ôï áðåéêïíéóôéêü ôïõ ðåñéå÷üìåíï. Åðéðñüóèåôá, êáé ùò äéá÷ñïíéêÞ ëåéôïõñãßá, ôï íüìéóìá áðïôåëåß ôç èåóìéêÞ Ýêöñáóç ôïõ ìïíÜñ÷ç êáô áñ÷Üò, ôïõ êñÜôïõò óôïõò ìïíôÝñíïõò ÷ñüíïõò. ÅðïìÝíùò, ìßá äéáëåêôéêÞ áíÜãíùóç ôçò Ýííïéáò ôïõ íïìßóìáôïò åßíáé åðéâåâëçìÝíç, êáèþò ôï ßäéï áðïôåëåß éóôïñéêÞ ýëç: áò Ý÷ïõìå õðüøéí üôé ôï íüìéóìá êáôÜ ôç ìåóáéùíéêÞ ðåñßïäï êáé ôïõò Ðñþéìïõò Íåþôåñïõò ×ñüíïõò, åßíáé ôï ßäéï áãáèü, åìðüñåõìá, åíþ ìåôÜ ôç óõãêñüôçóç ôïõ ¸èíïõò-ÊñÜôïõò êáé ôç Âéïìç÷áíéêÞ ÅðáíÜóôáóç Ý÷åé êáé ëïãéóôéêÞ áîßá, óÞìåñá äå ìüíï ëïãéóôéêÞ áîßá

The objective of this investigation was to determine the manner by which production standards or goals, performance or production feedback and monetary or wage incentive affected or moderated the relationship between worker satisfaction and productivity in a repetitive production task in a fishing industry. The industrial study was conducted to measure worker satisfaction and productivity under various experimental conditions involving production standards, performance feedback and monetary incentive. Only the participative standard and performance feedback condition affected the worker satisfaction-productivity relationship significantly for the fish-trimming task. The positive correlation coefficient (0.87) for this condition was found to be highly significant. This has an important implication for setting a strategy for achieving higher worker satisfaction and productivity in such an industry. Production standards with feedback generally improved worker satisfaction and productivity. Monetary incentive further improved worker performance but added no incremental satisfaction gain. The incorporation of production standards, performance feedback and monetary incentive affected worker satisfaction and productivity differently and this had an effect on the worker satisfaction-productivity relationship. In an earlier laboratory study, no significant worker satisfactionproductivity relationship was found when subjects (college students) were provided with similar experimental conditions.

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One of the most dramatic images of the French Revolution is of Parisian market women sloshing through mud and dragging cannons as they marched on Versailles and returned with bread and the king. These market women, the Dames des Halles, sold essential foodstuffs to the residents of the capital but, equally important, through their political and economic engagement, held great revolutionary influence.

Politics in the Marketplace examines how the Dames des Halles invented notions of citizenship through everyday trade. It innovatively interweaves the Dames' political activism and economic practices to reveal how marketplace actors shaped the nature of nascent democracy and capitalism through daily commerce. While haggling over price controls, fair taxes, and acceptable currency, the Dames and their clients negotiated tenuous economic and social contracts in tandem, remaking longstanding Old Regime practices. In this environment, the Dames conceptualized a type of economic citizenship in which individuals' activities such as buying goods, selling food, or paying taxes positioned them within the body politic and enabled them to make claims on the state. They insisted that their work as merchants served society and demanded that the state pass favorable regulations for them in return. In addition, they drew on their patriotic work as activists and their gendered work as republican mothers to compel the state to provide practical currency and assist indigent families. Thus, their notion of citizenship portrayed useful work, rather than gender, as the cornerstone of civic legitimacy.

In this original work, Katie Jarvis challenges the interpretation that the Revolution launched an inherently masculine trajectory for citizenship and reexamines work, gender, and citizenship at the cusp of modern democracy.

Si la protection sociale semble reculer, l’ tat n’a pas pour
autant renonc    prot ger ses citoyens. De la r glementation
du compte en banque jusqu’  l’ ducation budg taire
en passant par l’inclusion bancaire ou la proc dure de surendettement,
cet ouvrage met en lumi re la part bancaire des
politiques sociales. Il analyse un p rim tre d’action publique
qui prend une importance croissante : les politiques publiques
de l’argent des m nages, destin es   prot ger l’argent des
citoyens et leurs capacit s de consommation, en m me temps
qu’  lutter contre la pauvret .
Mais parce que ces politiques publiques de protection ne
sont pas collectives et s’appuient sur des dispositifs et des
institutions marchandes, elles illustrent la transformation profonde
des modes de protection et de solidarit  des soci t s
contemporaines : il ne s’agit pas tant de diminuer les risques
que de pr parer les individus   les affronter. L’auteure montre
ainsi magistralement comment les pouvoirs publics tentent
de r duire la pauvret , non par la redistribution, mais en transformant
les usages de l’argent des citoyens.

This paper investigates the consequences of stochastic volatility for pricing spot foreign currency options. A diffusion model for exchange rates with stochastic volatility is proposed and estimated. The parameter estimates are then used to price foreign currency options and the predictions are compared to observed market prices. We find that allowing volatility to be stochastic results in a much better fit to the empirical distribution of the Canada-U.S. exchange rate, and that this improvement in fit results in more accurate predictions of observed option prices.

Esta obra visa identificar a forma pela qual o Supremo Tribunal Federal, por meio de suas deliberações, interferiu na implementação dos planos econômicos de estabilização monetária, implementados durante as décadas de 1980 e 1990. A premissa deste estudo é a de que toda reforma monetária pressupõe violência jurídica. Assim, o papel do Judiciário no exercício do controle dos atos dos Poderes Executivo e Legislativo é extremamente relevante para pensar a relação entre o direito e a economia, bem como os limites institucionais ao poder de legislar nesse âmbito.

This program includes a strategy that will let you know how you can use social media to grow your online presence. You will find out the technique of making high-quality social media posts via it.

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As internet users become subjected to stricter and more developed means of surveillance and censorship, the developments towards a decentralised version of the network move forwards by providing functional and scalable alternatives. These blockchain inventions are definitely marvelous from the perspective of engineering and cryptography, but they raise important questions about legitimacy and governance. By employing qualitative data analysis and comparisons, this paper aims to present the current state of the internet, explain the origins and nature of the blockchain as the underlying source of immutable decentralisation, and ultimately ask the question " What are the possible solutions to create a truly decentralised internet which makes use of all the new technological advancements but is simultaneously accountable to national, transnational, and international polities? ". According to the findings, a framework of trust, collaboration and consensus must be established between those who govern and those who are governed, as new cryptographic innovations are led by autonomous " law is code " systems.

Вступ статті містить посилання на події в Україні та світі, що робить дослідження страхів молоді в умовах пандемії коронавірусу COVID-19 надзвичайно актуальним. Метою представленого наукового дослідження є діагностика та аналіз актуальних страхів молоді, пов’язаних з професійною діяльністю в умовах пандемії коронавірусу SARS-CoV-2. Використано такі методи як аналіз, узагальнення та систематизації теоретичних положень щодо феномену страху, авторський опитувальник «Актуальні страхи, пов’язані з професійною діяльністю в умовах пандемії коронавірусу COVID-19», контент-аналіз, математична статистична обробка даних. Представлено результати дослідження, висвітлено актуальний рівень страху, проаналізовано зміст страхів щодо професійної діяльності, показано шляхи зменшення страху молоді та наведено висновки.
Ключові слова: страх, молодь, професійна діяльність, пандемія, коронавірус.

Öz
Geçmişten günümüzde dek farklı toplumlar farklı paralar (altın, gümüş, banknot, banka parası vs.) kullanmıştır.
Kimi iktisatçılara göre para ekonomide pek önemli bir yere sahip değildir. Diğer yandan ise kimi iktisatçılara göre para
ekonomi için çok önemlidir. Uluslararası ticarette genelde global çapta tanınan büyük para birimlerinin (ABD doları ve
Avro gibi) kullanıldığını görmek mümkündür. Ancak küreselleşmenin sonucunda tüm bölgeler aynı ölçüde gelişmemiştir.
Küreselleşme ortamında kimi bölgeler daha da gerilemiştir. Ülkeler gerileyen bölgelerin ekonomilerini güçlendirmek için
farklı uygulamalar yürürlüğe koymuştur. Bunlardan birisi de bölgesel para birimleridir. Bu çalışmada bölgesel para
birimlerine ilişkin kısa bir analiz yapılmıştır.
Abstract
From past until today, different societies have used different kinds of money (gold, silver, banknote, bank money
etc.). According to some economists, money does not have an important place in the economy. On the other hand, according
to some economists money is very important for the economy. In international trade it is possible to see that worldrecognized
major currencies (like US Dollars and Euros) are used. But, as a result of globalization, all regions have not
developed to the same extent. In the context of globalization, some regions have further declined. Countries have put in place
different practices to strengthen the economies of the declining regions. One of them is regional currencies. A short analysis
of regional currencies has been conducted in this study.

El objetivo del trabajo es desarrollar un programa teórico para la observación del dinero a partir de la teoría de sistemas sociales. Para ello, el escrito tematiza los procesos que permitieron caracterizar al dinero como un medio de intercambio. Las ciencias sociales desplegaron sus propias explicaciones del dinero en una gama de descripciones por parte de corrientes formalistas, psicoanalistas, religiosas, funcionalistas, culturalistas, fenomenológicas y sistémicas clásicas. Estas teorías poseen implícitamente observaciones de planos de formación social macro, meso o micro. Entendido el estado del arte, se describe el lugar del dinero en la sociología de Niklas Luhmann. El texto concluye con una caracterización del dinero como un medio simbólico con alcances para la autorreferencialidad del sistema económico, la bifurcación de los significados del dinero en organizaciones; y sus propiedades de emergencia asociadas al dilema de agencia/constricción en sistemas de interacción

La moneta è onnipresente nella vita moderna, ma la produzione di moneta è ancora soggetta ad alcuna valutazione morale. Questo gap riguarda soprattutto gli aspetti morali delle moderne istituzioni monetarie, in particolare le banche, le banche centrali e la moneta immateriale. Il presente lavoro colma la lacuna mediante un'analisi interdisciplinare che coinvolge la politica economica, la filosofia realista e la dottrina morale cattolica. Nell'ultima parte, inoltre, sono tracciate le linee evolutive della storia monetaria occidentale a partire dal xvII secolo. Il volume si conclude con un accorato appello rivolto all'esigenza di un'urgente riforma monetaria globale.

This essay argues that traditional notions of literary value cannot account for the work of the contemporary Canadian poet Anne Carson because her poetry needs to be situated in the context of the emergence of a new form of economic value in the age of financial derivatives. This stems not from the poet’s superficial wish to keep up with the times, but from a deep engagement, born out of Carson’s training as a classical philologist, with how the introduction of coinage in Lydia in the 7th century BC changed – or even created – subsequent ways of thinking in philosophy and poetry: the perception of reality and value, the notions of self, subject and object, the separation of form and matter. In the collection Decreation (2005) Carson takes derivation (in both the literary and economic sense) beyond traditional forms of intertextuality, encouraging a “spillage” of sources within the text which she observes already in Longinus’ essay On the Sublime. Through her own practice of a form o...

The aim of this paper is analyzing the economic concept of time based on historical and cultural factors. The manuscript presents the historical evolution of the concept of time, highlighting its conceptualization since ancient times until now. Subsequently, the paper analyzes the economic value of time down through the history of no-time (leisure time) and its cultural contextualization (occidental culture/linear conception vs. oriental culture/cyclical conception). Finally, the contemporary state of the concepts of time and money, and suggests the need to establish a new culture of time, which should be taught from an early age.

The Wolf Of Wall Street (2013) is a semi non-fictional story of Jordan Belfort, a multimillionaire Wall Street broker who illegally amassed his fortune. Jordan starts from nothing, he is hopeful to pass his broker test and is completely amazed by the splendors of a real Wall Street firm, and he cannot even afford rent for him and his wife to be. He is young, and is against the

This article looks in more depth at the different ways in which ideas about cashless societies were articulated and explored in pre-1900 utopian literature. Taking examples from the works of key writers such as Thomas More, Robert Owen, William Morris and Edward Bellamy, it discusses the different ways in which the problems associated with conventional notes-and-coins monetary systems were tackled as well as looking at the proposals for alternative payment systems to take their place. Ultimately, what it shows is that although the desire to dispense with cash and find a more efficient and less-exploitable payment system is certainly nothing new, the practical problems associated with actually implementing such a system remain hugely challenging.

This chapter explores the work of artists who use various forms of money as media of creative expression and contestation. It advances the idea that we understand money as a medium of imagination: a means to comprehend and act within the webs of cooperation that make up the world. However, today's particular forms of financialized, capitalist money allow us to do so only within a strict set of constraints that orient the imagination and social action towards the reproduction of capital(ism). This helps explain the sorts of tensions and opportunities for money-art, but also the dangers and pitfalls. Without accompanying material transformations, symbolic and aesthetic strategies fall short.

בקרב המסורת הפרשנית של הרומן "סיפור פשוט" מאת שמואל יוסף עגנון, חוקרים רבים ראו באהבה הרומנטית של הירשל העשיר לבלומה קרובתו הענייה כניגוד למוסכמות הבורגניות והקפיטליסטיות של החברה היהודית בתחילת המאה העשרים, שמנהגיה מגולמים בדמות אמו של הירשל, הסוחרת הממולחת, צירל הורוביץ. דיכוטומיה פרשנית זו נובעת מהגישה הרווחת לפיה בעוד הספירה הציבורית מבוססת על סחר חליפין, אינטרסים ושוויון ערך, הרי שאהבה רומנטית מצויה בספירה האישית שמושתתת על רגש, ספונטניות וסינגולריות. בהתאם, מרבית הקריאות הפסיכואנליטיות ברומן של עגנון ראו באהבה ובמכאוב הרגשי של הירשל כחתירה תחת המבנה החברתי-כלכלי המיוצג ברומן.
בניגוד לפרשנויות אלו, הקריאה הנוכחית בסיפור פשוט מניחה שפסיכואנליזה וכלכלה אינם נפרדים, אלא שלובים. באמצעות פענוח התפיסה הכלכלית המכוננת את הפסיכואנליזה הפרוידיאנית, הקריאה שלי מראה כי הפרקטיקות הקפיטליסטיות של צירל והאהבה הרומנטית של הירשל מבוססות על מודל כלכלי זהה: תשוקה לצבירה אינסופית המבוססת על גירעון שאינו ניתן לאיזון. בעוד שתשוקתה האינסופית של צירל לכסף מדגימה את טענתו של מרקס כי הקפיטליזם הוא מערכת המועדת למשבר בגלל נטייתה להתפשטות בלתי מוגבלת, קריסתו הרגשית של הירשל חושפת כי אהבתו לבלומה משמשת כפיצוי למלנכוליה, שהוגדרה בידי פרויד כפתולוגיה המרוששת את האגו. במובן זה, האהבה הרומנטית שמציע הירשל אינה משמשת מפלט מהמערך הקפיטליסטי אלא למעשה משעתקת אותו. בדומה לנוסחה הפרוידיאנית של אהבה רומנטית, פשיטת הרגל הרגשית של הירשל נובעת מתפיסתו את האהבה כמצרך מוגבל, משחק סכום אפס שבו נתינה לאחר נתפסת כהפסד לסובייקט. המודל לאהבה רומנטית שמצליח לפרוע את התשתית הכלכלית של הפסד ורווח אישי מתגלה ברומן של עגנון דווקא בעיצובה של מינה צימליך, אשתו של הירשל ואחת הדמויות המבוזות ביותר בידי מבקרי עגנון. בעוד האהבה של הירשל נובעת ממלנכוליה שמכחישה את קיומו של האחר כנבדל, מינה— שאהבתה מבוססת על היכולת להתאבל על אובדן האחר כמי שאיננו אני—מציעה כלכלה אחרת שבה הנתינה לאחר מגלמת רווח לסובייקט.

Depuis 2015 Jean-Michel Servet voit dans le “partage au sens de bien
commun” une forme du principe de réciprocité dont il conteste l ’assimilation au don.
Il rejette aussi la conception de la monnaie qui la rapporte au concept de dette de vie,
car elle occulterait l ’existence du partage. Le chapitre discute ce point de vue en en
récusant avec minutie l ’argumentation. Il montre que le partage ne saurait être assimilé
à la réciprocité telle que la définissent R. Thurnwald, B. Malinowski, M. Mauss et K.
Polanyi.

The definition, evolution, forms, functions and measurement of money are best understood when mapped to the circular flow of goods and services, as seen in this 3rd part of the 1st unit of the UNISA Monetary Finance (ECS3701) course.
[Mishkin, S.F. The Economics of Money, Banking and Financial Markets, 2012 10th ed]

Many children graduate from high school and ultimately into adulthood without a basic understanding of money and money management, business, the economy, or investing. This book is an interactive resource for parents, teachers and my child designed to help my child learn the skills, knowledge and confidence for acquiring, managing and using money responsibly to maximise her income and assets, minimize her expenses and liabilities, and become a financially free adult.

"When I Wear My Alligator Boots examines how the lives of dispossessed men and women are affected by the rise of narcotrafficking along the U.S.-Mexico border. In particular, the book explores a crucial tension at the heart of the “war on drugs”: despite the violence and suffering brought on by drug cartels, for the rural poor in Mexico’s north, narcotrafficking offers one of the few paths to upward mobility and is a powerful source of cultural meanings and local prestige.

In the borderlands, traces of the drug trade are everywhere: from gang violence in cities to drug addiction in rural villages, from the vibrant folklore popularized in the narco-corridos of Norteña music to the icon of Jesús Malverde, the “patron saint” of narcos, tucked beneath the shirts of local people. In When I Wear My Alligator Boots, the author explores the everyday reality of the drug trade by living alongside its low-level workers, who live at the edges of the violence generated by the militarization of the war on drugs. Rather than telling the story of the powerful cartel leaders, the book focuses on the women who occasionally make their sandwiches, the low-level businessmen who launder their money, the addicts who consume their products, the mules who carry their money and drugs across borders, and the men and women who serve out prison sentences when their bosses' operations go awry."

Pegando no comentário de Marx a Shakespeare em The Power of Money (1844), encontramos um quadro teórico do materialismo histórico/económico onde se percebe qual é a materialidade de um objecto, no sentido estrito; porém, não se percebe tão bem qual é a materialidade de uma abstracção transformada em objecto, como é o caso dos conceitos de dinheiro ou de dívida, já que não se sabe ao certo onde encontrar o princípio e o fim de tais abstracções. No presente ensaio, pretendendo ultrapassar este espectro de Marx, e salientar também como alguns modelos de análise económica contemporâneos (David Shelll e Mark Graeber, p.ex)  são mais adequados à interpretação de Shakespeare, sempre com Timão de Atenas como corpo principal da análise textual a que recorro, irei demonstrar que (1) a relação económica é uma relação humana (2) Shakespeare comenta relações humanas e não atribui significativo juízo de valor ao dinheiro e (3) dinheiro é meio, não é fim.

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We imagine that art and money are old enemies, but Max Haiven argues that this myth actually helps reproduce a horrifically violent system of global capitalism and prevents us from imagining and building alternatives.

From the chaos unleased by the ‘imaginary’ money in financial markets to the new forms of exploitation enabled by the ‘creative economy’ to the way art has become the plaything of the world’s plutocrats, our era of financialization demands we question our romantic assumptions about art and money. By exploring the way contemporary artists engage with cash, debt and credit, Haiven identifies and assesses a range of creative strategies for mocking, sabotaging, exiting, decrypting and hacking capitalism today.

Written for artists, activists and scholars, this book makes an urgent call to unleash the power of the radical imagination by any media necessary.

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In the world of money and payment, dematerialization occurs in a striking way. Government fiat money may be placed on the endangered species list as people shift from analog currency, paper bank notes and coins, to digital currency. Cash money disappears and payment is performed by inserting a smart card in a terminal and entering a PIN-code. Due to the evolution of NFC, Near Field Communication, smartcards will, in turn, dematerialize and be integrated in our smart phones. We will then pay "contactless", by waving our smart phone through an invisible electromagnetic field generated by an NFC antenna.

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