Mega Events

An analysis of the European Capitals of Culture in 2012 in Guimarães (Portugal) and Maribor (Slovenia), based on visitor and resident research.

Contents
Chapter 1: Researching the European Capital of Culture
Greg Richards 3
Chapter 2: Guimarães European Capital of Culture 2012
Visitor Research
Greg Richards, Johan Ferla and Carlos Fernandes 6
Chapter 3: Maribor European Capital of Culture 2012 Visitor Research
Greg Richards, Miha Lesjak and Mitja Petelin 49
Chapter 4: Guimarães and Maribor 2012, some comparisons
Greg Richards 78

For many years there has been wide recognition of the economic impact that major

sports events can generate in attracting visitors and event-related construction

investment. This article seeks to provide a brief overview of the key approaches that

have been used to assess the economic impact of major events over the past two

decades including multiplier analysis, input
–
output modelling, and computable

general equilibrium (CGE) modelling. The article also discusses some of the

advantages and disadvantages of these approaches. In order to provide a platform for

future research that draws upon existing research, the article then presents the

findings
of a meta analysis undertaken to examine the key patterns in economic

assessments of major events based on previous studies reported in the literature.

These reviews have been
classified
into three stages that are ordered chronologically

and it can be seen that the range of issues covered, the depth of analysis, and the

comprehensiveness of the evaluations increased across these three stages. This article

finally
summarises the key advances in approach that were made across these stages

and proposes a future research agenda.

In the last few years, events have come to prominence as an important marketing communication tool. This book aims to provide conceptual models and instruments to manage effectively events to achieve communication goals through the application of advanced marketing techniques. What is the role of events in the marketing communication mix? What goals can be legitimately attributed to events? How to use events to deliver memorable experiences? How to measure event results and maximize returns on investments? How to deal effectively with event agencies? Readers will find hands-on answers to all these questions in this book, written with in mind the knowledge needs of companies that want to employ events as part of their marketing communication mix. It will be a stimulating reading for brand, product, communication and event managers, for account managers and creative directors in event agencies, for marketing and communication students, and for all those who aspire to get a job in the world of marketing events.

Les expositions universelles, une utopie touristique toujours d’actualité ? World’s Fair, The Renew of Touristic Utopia? ¿Exposiciones universales, una utopía turística siempre de actualidad? À travers les expositions universelles récentes et passées et plus particulièrement les expositions de Milan 2015 et de Port-au-Prince 1949, nous rappelons que cette pratique touristique du voyage d’agrément dans une grande ville remonte au XIXe siècle, elle accompagne les origines de notre tourisme moderne, tout en devenant un instrument de géopolitique et de marketing touristique de première importance pour les villes et les pays hôtes. Les expositions peuvent être considérées comme un levier urbanistique, mais aussi un moyen de faire voyager et de comprendre notre monde à travers un système de représentation des identités locales et mondiales proposant toujours une mise en valeur de la découverte scientifique et de l’expérience culturelle à travers les pavillons nationaux. Ces manifestations géantes reposent sur une mise en scène et en récit à partir d’un thème universel questionnant généralement le concept du développement durable et de l’attractivité touristique renouvelée de la destination. Notre analyse porte sur la plus récente des expositions universelles et une exposition oubliée appartenant à l’aire culturelle des caraïbes permettant de dégager trois dynamiques associant le tourisme de méga-événement et l’utopie des voyages initiatiques, à savoir : les expositions universelles se réinventent et retrouvent un certain succès de fréquentation impliquant une redéfinition des champs et des usages d’une utopie contrariée. Faire voyager est un acte à la fois scénographique et symbolique à travers le pavillon impliquant des artifices et des déclinaisons de plus en plus numériques, la quête de cette pratique durable du voyage se confronte à son héritage et à son souvenir à différentes échelles et temporalités. Through the recent and past universal exhibitions and more particularly the world’s fair of Milan 2015 and Port-au-Prince 1949, we recall that this tourist practice of the pleasure trip in a large city dates back to the XIXth century, it accompanies the origins of Our modern tourism, while becoming an instrument of geopolitics and tourist marketing of prime importance to cities and host countries. Exhibitions can be seen as an urban lever, but also a way to make travel and understand our world through a system of representation of local and global identities that always emphasizes scientific discovery and cultural experience through the national pavilion. These giant events are based on a staging and narrative based on a universal theme generally questioning the concept of sustainable development and the renewed attractiveness of the destination. Our analysis focuses on the most recent of the universal exhibitions and a forgotten exhibition belonging to the cultural area of the Caribbean, which reveals three dynamics associating mega-event tourism with the utopia of initiatory journeys, namely: reinvent and regain a certain success of frequentation implying a redefinition of the fields and uses of a disrupted utopia; to make travel is an act both scenographic and symbolic through the pavilion involving artifices and more and more digital declensions, the quest for this sustainable practice of travel is confronted with its heritage and its memory at different scales and temporalities. A través de las exposiciones universales recientes y pasados y, especialmente, la Feria de Milán en 2015 y Puerto Príncipe en 1949, recordamos que esta práctica de turismo de viaje de placer a una gran ciudad se remonta al siglo XIX, que acompaña a los orígenes de turismo moderno, mientras que convertirse en un instrumento geopolítico y comercialización del turismo de las principales ciudades y países anfitriones. Las exposiciones pueden considerarse una palanca urbana, sino también una manera de viajar y entender nuestro mundo a través de un sistema de representación de las identidades locales y globales que todavía ofrece el desarrollo de los descubrimientos científicos y la experiencia cultural a través pabellones nacionales. Estas manifestaciones gigantes basados en una puesta en escena y la narrativa de un tema universal en general, cuestionando el concepto de desarrollo sostenible y renovada atractivos turísticos del destino. Nuestro análisis se centra en las últimas exposiciones universales y una exposición olvidado que pertenecen a la zona cultural del Caribe para identificar tres dinámico entre el turismo mega-evento y la utopía de los viajes iniciáticos, a saber: las exposiciones universales reinventar y encontrar un cierto éxito de asistencia que implica una redefinición de campos y utiliza una utopía alterada, para viajar es un acto tanto teatral y simbólico a través del pabellón y declinaciones cada vez más digitales, las la búsqueda de este viaje práctica sostenible se enfrenta a su artificialidad y su memoria en diferentes escalas y marcos de tiempo. Index géographique : Europe, Caraïbes, Italie, Haïti, France, Milan, Port-au-Prince, New York, Osaka Mots-clés : exposition universelle, utopie, tourisme, architecture, urbanisme Palabras claves : expo, utopía, turismo, arquitectura, urbanismo Keywords : world’s fair, utopia, tourism, architecture, city-planning Patrice Ballester, Les expositions universelles, une utopie touristique toujours d’actualité ? World’s Fair, The Renew of Touristic Utopia? ¿Exposiciones universales, una utopía turística siempre de actualidad?, Études caribéennes 37-38, Août-Décembre 2017 Tourismes, voyages, utopies, pp.1-26.

This paper offers a discourse analysis of media representations of para-athletes before, during and post Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games in print, broadcast and online sources with a view to influencing attitudes towards people with a disability. We use the lens of critical disability theory to inform the study and analyse media representations of para-athletes beyond the physical barriers faced by people with a disability. We seek to address the dearth of studies that examine disability at major sporting events and make a contribution to understanding the media-sport cultural complex (Rowe 1999) and its importance in influencing public attitudes towards disability.

This article considers processes of urban development within the context of mega-event preparations in Rio de Janeiro. We begin with a brief overview of these development processes, highlighting their connections to political and economic change in recent years. Proponents of these mega-event-led initiatives argue that Rio is undergoing a period of inclusive growth and integration: a perspective we call here a ‘post-Third-World city’ narrative of urban renewal. Critics, however, contend that urban officials are harnessing mega-events (e.g. the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games) to push forward a neoliberal agenda of socially unjust policies benefiting the interests of capital and marginalizing the city’s poor and especially its favelas (i.e. the ‘city-of-exception’ thesis). In this article we explore the insights of these two perspectives and consider why they have grown popular in recent years. Though we side generally with the city-of-exception thesis, we argue that import...

This edited volume offers a critical reflection on the failed experiment to redevelop the city of
Rio de Janeiro according to the neoliberal strategy of entrepreneurial urban governance and
mercantile regulatory transformations, which were leveraged by mega-sporting events. The
case of Rio de Janeiro is presented as an example of a failing global strategy for urban
redevelopment, entrepreneurial urban governance and the realization of mega-events. This
book aims to present the real and critical state of the legacies of such mega-events. It shows
how instead of the promised economic redemption, Rio is experiencing a severe economic,
politicaland social crisis,handling three observation perspectives: the first is the description of
urban transformations and mega events,assessing the contradictions in the model for the
intended urban development and taking into account historical factors both at local and
national level; the second restricts on neighborhoods as case studies representing an ensign of
a neoliberal urban transformation’ results; the third links city and citizenship focusing tensions
and inconsistencies and opening up a perspective on the importance of fostering the concept
of citizenship, including actions, movements and initiatives that express the resistance and
struggles around a possible new destination for Rio de Janeiro.
Prof. Luiz Cesar de Quieroz
Ribeiro and Dr.Filippo Bignami as General Editors thank Ana Paula Soares Carvalho, Humberto
Meza, Niccoló Cuppini and Orlando dos Santos Junior for their contributions as co-editors of this book.

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Mega-events are not new, but in contemporary times they are increasingly being hosted in the Global South, and their resultant impacts and legacies are raising new challenges as to the rationale behind their organisation and the legacy impacts they might have. Infrastructural development and sustainability contestations are gaining prominence among participants seeking to deliver sustainable mega-events. In preparations for these ventures the construction of stadiums have often been accompanied by contentious debates about costs involved and post-event sustainability. A plethora of studies have considered the ability of such mega-events to impact either positively or negatively on the sustainability outlook of destinations hosting them. This study delves into the sustainability imperatives of South Africa’s hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, focalising on the evaluation of post-event sustainability of stadiums. Grounded within the stakeholder theory and mega-event legacy framework,...

Th is paper focuses on relationship between volunteer work and cultural participation.
Volunteering is introduced as an important practice of cultural commitment. On the one
hand, it has all the major features of contemporary cultural practices. It can be described
in terms of culture-making, productivity, continuity, and glamour. On the other hand,
because of its subjectivity, relationship supporting mechanism, and lifestyle infl uence, it is
perceived as diff erent from other practices. Th is situation makes volunteering an important
aspect of cultural studies researches. Data analyzed in this paper are the results of the research
project entitled, „Involving volunteers into organization of big events – weaknesses
and strengths”.

Sport tourism events have grown in prominence globally. Governments increasingly include these activities into their development strategies. Notably, there are benefits and costs to host destinations. The 2010 Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup presents South Africa with tangible and intangible impacts. Residents’ perception studies on sport event impacts are limited and it is further recognised that those living closest to the stadium are most impacted by the development. This study investigated Green Point residents ’ perceptions of the 2010 FIFA World Cup and the impacts of the Green Point Stadium (now named Cape Town Stadium), especially given the contentious nature of the selection of the competition venue for the City of Cape Town. A spatially based stratified random sampling method was used to interview 344 residents living within one kilometre of the Stadium. The findings reveal that while the location of the stadium remains a contentious issu...

The costs of hosting the FIFA World Cup have increased exponentially since the turn of the twenty-first century. While municipal and federal governments invested in stadium infrastructure for previous tournaments, such as Italy 1990
and France 1998, by today's standards the scope and scale of investments were comparatively small. Beginning with Japan/Korea 2002 when the hosts combined
to build or renovate twenty stadiums, there has been an escalating impact on host cities as local, regional, and federal governments use the World Cup to meet the infrastructural and technical demands ofFIF A and to push through projects aimed
at "legacy development." This chapter explores the impacts on Brazilian cities of hosting the World Cup. My analysis stems from observations developed during a long engagement with scholars, activists, and media in Brazil as well as a longitudinal study that dealt with the urban impacts of the World Cup on all twelve host cities.

The analysis of the impact of mega events has included frameworks that evaluate different impacts under different criteria, for example, separating impacts according to whether they occur before, during or after the event itself. Analysis of the economic impacts of such events has shown that the distributional effects between the host city and the rest of an economy can be important, and can have opposite signs.

This paper introduces frameworks to show the origin of the economic scale, that is, Olympic-related investment and expenditure, and shows how the frameworks can be used with reference to the Beijing 2008 Olympics.

Cities entered a global inter-urban competition for tourist dollars and conventions. They responded to their urban fiscal crisis by trying to remake themselves as places of fun (rather than danger or disorder), brand themselves to carve out particular niches in the global market for visitors, and to market themselves to potential tourists, conventions, and as suitable locations for global capital, by hosting mega-events.

A marketing event is an activity or a performance held by a company for branding purposes. It is usually planned well ahead of execution and with anticipated results. The process of staging such events is regarded as a part of event marketing industry, which - due to its high potential in building brand experiences and establishing direct contacts with customers - has been widely adopted into branding and marketing communication strategies worldwide. Since recent proliferation of digital media created new opportunities for producing diverse performances, there have emerged innovative forms of event marketing e.g.: pop-up shops, flash mobs, street games, branded pranks etc. As there has been little theoretical and empirical work dedicated to these new branding phenomena, this paper aims at providing a reflective framework for a few of them. The first section of the text is, therefore, dedicated to theoretical explanations about traditional events – their social role and effectiveness in terms of branding and marketing communications. The second part of the paper presents most recent examples of lately developed event forms i.e.: branded pranks and alternate reality games. The author discusses their innovativeness and possibilities to build key brand indicators with them. Numerous examples of events staged by diverse brand categories are provided, including: Audi, Smirnoff, O2, T-Mobile, Heineken, Tymbark (juice brand), Nivea, Coca-Cola etc. The paper concludes with several areas for inquiry to be addressed in future research endeavors.

Events are becoming more complex as their range of functions grows, as meeting places, creative spaces, economic catalysts, social drivers, community builders, image makers, business forums and network nodes. Effective design can produce more successful business models that can help to sustain cultural and sporting activities even in difficult economic times. This process requires creative imagination, and a design methodology or in other words ‘imagineering’.

This book brings together a wide range of international experts in the fields of events, design and imagineering to examine the event design process. It explores the entire event experience from conception and production to consumption and co-creation. By doing so it offers insight into effective strategies for coping with the shift in value creation away from transactional economic value towards social and relational value which benefit a range of stakeholders from the community to policy makers. Mega-events, small community events, business events and festivals in eight different countries are examined providing an international view of social issues in event design.

A wide selection of current research perspectives is employed, integrating both theoretical and applied contributions. The multidisciplinary nature of the material means that it will appeal to a broad academic audience, such as art and design, cultural studies, tourism, events studies, sociology and hospitality.

In the article, the author analyzes a specific type of mega-event, the festival. The purpose of the study is to compare two disparate types of opinion on the social, economic and cultural meaning and function of festivals. These opinions are expressed, on one side, by supporters of festivals, who attribute to them many culture-forming elements, and, on the other side, by criticisms based on allegations that most contemporary festivals are characterized by commercialization and schematism. The opinions of researchers, writers, journalists and festival participants cited in the text allow us to ask whether and to what extent the “festivalization” of culture has now become a megatrend.

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Guimarães has hosted, during the year of 2012, one of the European Capital of Culture (ECOC). The evaluation of the event is needed as public, private and community funds are involved. The approach considers the tourists (domestic and international) as external and independent stakeholders who assessed the cultural activities developed during the event and the attributes of the city. The results of the survey show that hosting the 2012 ECOC was a major contribution for attracting new visitors to the city, although many of them just for a short period of time. The main source of general information collected by tourists was the Internet, and the traditional media. Only a small amount of respondents demonstrated a specialized knowledge of the cultural program. The most cited and appreciated performances came from the areas of music, exhibitions, and theatre. According to the perceptions of tourists, the tangible assets were clearly detached from the set of attributes of Guimarães, including buildings, churches and chapels, whereas intangible assets were less noted. Overall, Guimarães received a very positive evaluation related to city image and stay and is highly recommended by tourists to friends and relatives.

▶ The book presents the role of festivals in relation to the urban spaces
▶ Provides the overview of the origins, history, and the main factors of
festival development
▶ Presents the case study of the city of Lodz, Poland
▶ Provides a model for studying the role of festivals in the
development of the city space
▶ Multidisciplinary work, intended for a wider audience
▶ Comprehensive and multifaceted publication, which covers both
theoretical and practical issues regarding festival studies
This is a multi-disciplinary scientific monograph referring to urban geography, urban
regions management, event studies, tourism geography, cultural anthropology and
sociology. It covers issues which are typically related to the most popular type of
events: festivals. This book studies the origins, history, and the main factors of festival
development, as well as the concept of a festival in the context of various scientific
disciplines. It presents the existing festival typologies as well as the author's own
comprehensive typology. The theoretical part concerns the basic research methods and
approaches used in the analysis of these events, as well as their impacts on the urban
space in the physical (festival facilities), social (a place where people may pursue their
interests, meet with family and friends) and cultural aspect. The economic aspect of
festivals (generating jobs and income from tourism, using festivals for city branding,
etc.) is also discussed. The book presents practical examples in sub-chapters, references
to literature (further reading) and the case study of the influence of festivals on urban
space management and urban development, using the example of Łódź – a Polish postsocialist
city. It may also be treated as a supplementary course book for students of urban
geography, urban regions management, tourism, event management and, to a certain
extent, anthropology of culture and sociology. 

Hosting the Olympic Games demands the efficient and effective sequestration of public space across the city to stage official sports, cultural, and commercial activity. Specifically, this paper examines how fast-tracked urban development processes create exclusive, commercial enclaves to maximise leverageable benefits for external actors. We focus on the case of Rio 2016, drawing on: i) observations across the city and event zones, including Live Site, Last Mile, and transit spaces, ii) interviews with key event, policy and visitor economy stakeholders, iii) documentary analysis of Rio’s plans and promises outlined in official bid documentation, and iv) supplementary sources documenting Olympic planning effects. Our findings illustrate how the legal power of the Host City Contract and highly-circumscribed Olympic regulations create the conditions for managing urban space that enables the circulation of visitor flows to - and the containment of consumption within - newly privatised, temporarily constructed urban zones that favour global interests.

Hosting sporting mega-events involve considerable investment in and
significant engagement with local communities. This paper contributes to
the burgeoning literature about sporting mega event’s socio-geographical
impacts on tourism, employment, urban regeneration, and socio-economic
and cultural benefits. Within the context of 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, we
assess, utilizing interview data from local communities, the impact of the
construction of the 2014 World Cup’s opening venue, ‘Arena Corinthians’
soccer stadium, in Itaquera, as well as other infrastructure developments
more widely in the East Zone of São Paulo. The results point to the diversity
of opinions among the resident community about the real legacies resulting
from this sport mega-event.

The subjective Quality of Life has often been related to leisure well-being, which depends on factors such as Arousal, Intrinsic satisfaction, Involvement, Mastery, Perceived freedom and Spontaneity (Unger and Kernan, 1983). Many of these elements are related to having a varied life pattern with diverse leisure activities. This paper explores how the development of ‘eventfulness’ can contribute to diverse time qualities, and therefore improve subjective well-being and quality of life. It draws on previous studies of cultural events of well-being, as well as data from the ATLAS Event Monitoring Project.

This paper examines the confluence of global, regional, and national politics in the lead up to the 1991 Pan-American Games
hosted by Cuba. Cuba’s contentious selection as host was wholly underpinned by the international politics of the time. Once selected, the preparations for the Games in Havana were surrounded by an unprecedented domestic economic crisis fueled by shifts in global politics. This paper analyzes how international politics informed the hosting of the 1991 Pan-American Games and shaped the political challenge the Cuban government faced in hosting such an event. The Revolution’s use of sport domestically and internationally came to the forefront in its efforts as host and the results of those efforts proved to be providential given the emerging political economic contexts during and in the ensuing years after the Games.

Events and festivals have become increasingly important policy tools for cities and regions. They are able to produce a wide range of externalities, including economic impacts, image change, social capital and cultural regeneration. All of these event-related externalities have impacts and effects on the places in which they are staged. In many cases, these event-related impacts are analysed separately, but in fact the most powerful effects of events are more holistic, able to impact not just on individual economic sectors or social groups, but on places as a whole. Over time, the use of events by cities and regions has grown more sophisticated and complex. The range of policy goals for which events are utilised has expanded, and the range and type of events staged has increased as well. Increasingly, public administrations seek to coordinate the events in their jurisdiction to create synergies between events and to maximise the benefits generated. Event policies make frequent references to the development of programmes or " portfolios " of events (Antchak, 2016). The ability of events to effect a broad range of changes in different places has added to their attractiveness as a placemaking tool, and has led to more cities developing " events units " and other forms of event-based

While a mega-event is scheduled at least once every year somewhere in the world, these events are rare occurrences for the host cities and countries. The benefits of such events seem lucrative; the very fact that many countries bid to host these events suggests that the benefits -be they tangible or intangible -more often than not outweigh the costs. Using a standard gravity model of bilateral tourism flows between 200 countries from 1995 to 2006, this paper measures a very direct benefit of such mega-events: the increase in tourist arrivals to the host country. Although ex ante expectations are that tourism numbers would increase significantly during such an event, a growing literature points to the careful appraisal of possible tourist displacement, i.e. 'regular' tourists that change their behaviour when a mega-event is held, either shifting their trip to a different time or different location. This may result in reduced tourism gain, or even loss. In general, results suggest that mega-events promote tourism but the gain is dependent on the type of mega-event, the participating countries, the host country's level of development, and whether the event is held during the peak-or off-season.

The rapid diffusion of themed-sport areas as legacies of mega-sporting events
is a phenomenon gaining growing attention worldwide. An example of this is offered by the city of Doha. On the occasion of the 2006 Asian Games, the capital of Qatar faced some important urban transformations. The main legacy left after staging the event is the implementation of the Aspire Zone, Doha’s Sports City. Is this legacy beneficial in the long-term? What value is added to the city and its inhabitants? Moreover, what is the role of sports events in urban regeneration and their link with urban renewal processes? This study attempts to provide insight into the potential offered by themed-sport areas as legacies of mega-events. It aims to evaluate the rationale for the realization of sports-dedicated zones, analyzing their impact from a physical and social perspective.
Specifically, the research offers an investigation into the long-term effect of the Aspire Zone, Doha Sports City, by conducting a post-occupancy evaluation. Conclusions show that there is potential to realize sports-oriented areas that are fully integrated into cities, but the design of a comprehensive and long-term plan is needed. Moreover, providing a sports city with a variety of different activities and functions will contribute to attracting different types of users and will avoid occasional use.

Events can be differentiated into many types based on the category, size and domain such as public events which has a big number of audience and participants or private events which revolve around the primary interest of individuals, small or miniature private groups. Such types of event can be considered as mega events which are organized in a large scale and can cater a huge cluster of people gathered in a single place. Carnivals are fall under the category of cultural celebrations. Although there are many carnivals celebrated in different locations of the globe, including different locations in Brazil as well as many other catholic countries but Rio de Janeiro’s carnival is extremely popular all over the globe due to its gargantuan size and flamboyant performances. In this report, we will discuss the complexities involved in organizing Rio de Janeiro’s Carnival in 2014, its SWOT analysis, risk management and services available in the carnival.