Marriage and Divorce

As pornography use becomes more commonplace in the United States, and increasingly so among younger cohorts, a growing literature is considering its potential connection to key social and cultural institutions. The current study examines the relationship between pornography use and one such institution—marriage. We draw on three-wave longitudinal data from 2006-2014 General Social Survey panel studies to determine whether married Americans' pornography use predicts their likelihood of divorce over time and under what social conditions. We employ a doubly robust strategy that combines entropy balancing with logistic regression models. We find that the probability of divorce roughly doubles for married Americans who begin pornography use between survey waves (N = 2,125; Odds Ratio = 2.20), and that this relationship holds for both women and men. Conversely, discontinuing pornography use between survey waves is associated with a lower probability of divorce, but only for women. Additional analyses also show that the association between beginning pornography use and the probability of divorce is particularly strong among younger Americans, those who are less religious, and those who report greater initial marital happiness. We conclude by discussing data limitations, considering potential intervening mechanisms and the possibility of reverse-causation, and outlining implications for future research.

Near the end of my academic career I became very interested in Sylvia Plath's poetry. This inevitably involved becoming familiar with Ted Hughes' work as well. I was struck as I became more familiar with their work and their biographies how intertwined they were in terms of mutual influence, how their work, among other things, was an extended conversation between two poets, between husband and wife, between the living and the dead. The seminar I led at UBC in Winter term, 2011, explored these connections. The seminar was for me a way of doing some of the preliminary work for writing a book. However, 'retirement' came around before the book was written. In any case, such a book was published by Heather Clark, The Grief of Influence. I reviewed it for Review of English Studies (UK) in 2012. It's not the book I would have written, but at least it's opened up the area for further consideration. What follows are the notes I used during the course of the seminar. The seminar was one of the highlights of my teaching career -the students were deeply interested and the work that came from them was splendid. The course description and syllabus is included in this section.)

Numerous studies have examined the connection between pornography viewing and marital quality, with findings most often revealing a negative association. Data limitations, however,have precluded establishing directionality with a representative sample. This study is the first to draw on nationally representative, longitudinal data (2006-2012 Portraits of American Life Study) to test whether more frequent pornography use influences marital quality later on and whether this effect is moderated by gender. In general, married persons who more frequently viewed pornography in 2006 reported significantly lower levels of marital quality in 2012, net of controls for earlier marital quality and relevant correlates. Pornography's effect was not simplya proxy for dissatisfaction with sex life or marital decision-making in 2006. In terms of substantive influence, frequency of pornography use in 2006 was the second strongest predictor of marital quality in 2012. Interaction effects revealed, however, that the negative effect of porn use on marital quality applied to husbands, but not wives. In fact, post-estimation predicted values indicated that wives who viewed pornography more frequently reported higher marital quality than those who viewed it less frequently or not at all. The implications and limitations of this study are discussed.

We have a problem in the arena of divorce and custody. We have a system that is not impartial and often serves as a breeding ground for disingenuous and unethical actions committed by players in the legal arena and sometimes (knowingly and unknowingly) enabled by the very courts people believe will determine fact from fiction. Many Fathers have an uphill challenge awaiting them as they seek what many others before the law and courts seek...fairness and the right to be heard.

The system of Israeli rabbinical courts has been recognized in Israeli law as an official judicial system of the state, and it has special authority to litigate matters of marriage and divorce for all Jewish residents of Israel. This reality, in which a halakhic institution operates by virtue of a secular law, has far-reaching consequences for the manner in which the rabbinical courts operate. In addition to clear advantages, there are also complex problems.
Over the years, a substantial portion of issues related to family law have not been left within the exclusive jurisdiction of rabbinical courts. It appears that in recent years a backlash of a new type has been developing by the rabbinical courts. Some of the rabbinical judges are adopting problematic halakhic positions in order to restore to the rabbinical courts' authorities that have been denied to them by Israeli law or by the civilian courts.
In the present paper, I show a critical examination of one halakhic tool of this type. Simply put, according to some dayanim if the wife takes the entirely legal step of approaching a civil rather a rabbinical court regarding a matter having to do with her rights in a dispute, this will result in her being deemed obligated to be divorced. I show that the arguments adduced by the dayanim indicate that their rulings are agenda-driven: they are, to a significant degree, innovative, and their use of the halakhic sources they cite is quite problematic.

Kazuo Kamimura è un acuto e raffinato interprete della società giapponese del suo tempo, e Il Club delle Divorziate rappresenta un perfetto esempio di tale sagace sensibilità. Attraverso le storie di persone "ai margini" di una società conformista e benestante, Kamimura mette in luce nevrosi e criticità di un sistema sociale che fatica a gestire la complessità.

A draft translation of extracts from the 'Annales Altahenses' (Annals of Niederaltaich, written c.1075) on Henry IV of Germany's marriage to Bertha of Savoy in 1066, his attempt to repudiate Bertha in 1069, and her mother, Adelaide of Turin's, subsequent attack on the imperial city of Lodi.

Having a high-flying career sometimes may become a tangible problem for both the spouses. Daily routine and helter-skelter can make a marriage just a sham and make family itself inferior. Harry Silver is a TV producer, embarking on his second marriage Cyd, the nice American who was a waitress and launched her own catering business. Her business is thriving but Harry's career is going down the pan. Harry dotes on children and he wants to have a baby with his wife and puts it up to her. But Cyd have another plans. She doesn't want to give up her dazzling career. She wants to earn some money for her daughter.

ازدواج موقت به رغم تردیدناپذیري آن از نگاه فقه شیعه، در چند دهه اخیر یکی از مسائل چالش برانگیز اجتماعی- فرهنگی بوده است. عده اي از کارشناسان، رواج ازدواج موقت را باعث شیوع فساد بیشتر در سطح جامعه میدانند؛ در حالیکه برخی دیگر بر این باورند که ترویج و تشویق به ازدواج موقت، تنها راه جلوگیري از فساد روزافزون جامعه کنونی است. این پدیده دارای علل و پیامدهای متفاوتی می باشد که باید فارغ از نگاه¬های جانبدارانه مورد مطالعه قرار بگیرد. بر همین مبنا در این تحقیق برای اولین بار، مبانی تایخی، دینی، حقوقی و اجتماعی ازدواج موقت/ صیغۀ محرمیت بررسی می‌شود. همچنین با استفاده از رویکرد کیفی و کمی و به‌کارگیری روش زمینه‌یابی، این پدیده به طور جامع در سه کلان‌شهر تهران، مشهد و اصفهان در سال‌ 1395-96 بررسی شد. یافته‌های این تحقیق نشان داد که عشرت‌طلبی و تسهیل شرایط کودک‌همسری پدیدۀ محوری ازدواج موقت/ صیغۀ محرمیت هستند که پیامدهایی مانند بدنامی به ویژه برای زنان و شکل‌گیری ذهنیت منفی در مردان راجع به ازدواج دائم را به دنبال می‌آورند. در این پژوهش تلاش شده است زوایای آشکار و پنهان ازدواج موقت و صیغۀ محرمیت بدون نگاه جانبدارانه و به صورت علمی بررسی شود تا دیدگاهی روشن و دقیق دربارۀ به این پدیدۀ اجتماعی به وجود آید و راهکارهای اصولی و واقع‌بینانه‌ای در اختیار مسئولان اجرایی و قانون‌گذاران قرار گیرد. امید است بر مبنای این راهکارها، نهاد ازدواج موقت در ایران از لحاظ حقوقی و اجتماعی ساماندهی شود، به نحوی که حقوق زنان و کودکان در آن نقض نشود، بنیاد خانواده و جایگاه ازدواج دائم حفظ شود.

واژگان کلیدی: ازدواج موقت، صیغه محرمیت، زنان، کودکان، قانون. فقه

Men's and women's employment trajectories following divorce is an important issue for analysis because of the possible implications of the changes in employment characteristics on the economic well-being of divorced men and women and their children, and on their levels of dependency on the welfare state. In order to analyse the long-term effects of divorce on an individual's salary, employment stability, and the number of jobs held, we employ a unique register-based panel data from Israel. Using longitudinal multi-level analyses and linear growth models, so as fixed-effects models, we find that men's monthly salary and employment stability levels suffer more than those of women following divorce. Nonetheless, our results are in line with previous research on the negative effect of divorce on women's economic status. This is because our fixed-effects models show that, although women increase their employment stability and the number of jobs held following divorce, their earnings do not rise following marital disruption. Moreover, women usually experience a reduction in their salary growth rates. For men, our fixed-effects models suggest that their employment stability levels suffer following divorce, but that there are no substantial differences in men's earnings or in their salary growth ratesfollowing marital disruption. These results are discussed within the theoretical frameworks of the marriage premium and the divorce penalty.

From the above mentioned admitted facts, it is evident
that the petitioner needs sufficient amount of money for the
treatment of breast cancer. Hence, it cannot be ruled out that
in order to save her life by getting money, she agreed for a
settlement of dissolution of marriage. On these facts, a
question that came in our mind is as to whether the Court
would be justified in granting a decree for divorce on the basis
of settlement when the wife is suffering with breast cancer and
is in need of money for her treatment and can that be the
consideration for dissolution of marriage.
REPORTABLE
IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA
CIVIL ORIGINAL JURISDICTION
TRANSFER PETITION (CIVIL) NO. 702 OF 2015
Vennangot Anuradha Samir …..Petitioner
versus
Vennangot Mohandas Samir …Respondent
Dated;December 02, 2015

Following the death of 17-year-old Leelah Alcorn, a transgender teen who committed suicide after forced “conversion therapy,” President Barack Obama called for a nationwide ban on psychotherapy aimed at changing sexual orientation or gender identity. The administration argued that because conversion therapy causes substantial psychological harm to minors, it is neither medically nor ethically appropriate. We fully agree with the President and believe that this is a step in the right direction. Of course, in addition to being unsafe as well as ethically unsound, current conversion therapy approaches aren’t actually effective at doing what they claim to do – changing sexual orientation. But we also worry that this may be a short-term legislative solution to what is really a conceptual problem. The question we ought to be asking is “what will happen if and when scientists do end up developing safe and effective technologies that can alter sexual orientation?”

One aspect of the data, one common theme, which should not surprise, but does, is this: every single one of these people is incredibly miserable here.  My conclusions in this paper will be drawn not just from the interviews I’ve done with the married residents, but also with the other residents I’ve come to know and have written about in my field notes.  Even the nicest, most forbearing, patient, and unfailingly polite among them, JB, summed up the entire experience of being here as “disgusting.”  And it’s not the quality of the care, or the staff, or the cleanliness of the building, or the amount of light they receive through the windows, or the food, but rather the very fact that they are not at home, that they are institutionalized, and that they never, ever forget that.  The institution repeatedly reminds them of their traumatic experiences, when they were helpless and terrified. Some suffer the pain of watching a spouse deteriorate and die, and all of them seem to feel desolation, isolation,  and loneliness, even though they are constantly surrounded by often very noisy people and their machine.  But even so, these experiences are not at the heart of the matter.  What is the heart of the matter?  What is the single most unbearable feeling  universally shared by the people who live here?  I'm talking about the ones who still have their faculties, who have not gone over into the fog of Alzheimer’s (which is not to say that demented people are content, because they clearly are not, but they are not entirely conscious of their discontentment)?  The universal condition is frustration with their diminished autonomy.  Each one of them is struggling mightily to hold on to their self-determination and watching it slip, inexorably, away from them.  This is the problem.  This is what changes marriages.  This is how the institution affects marriages.  What is a marriage when the married persons no longer feel that they own themselves, that they have given themselves, their decisions, their minds, their bodies, their routines, over to a larger entity, a mostly benign entity to be sure, but an institution all the same, an institution that exists primarily to justify itself, and not to care for the spirit, body, and mind of each resident?
What I am concluding here is that married couples bring their problems and patterns with them into the nursing home, and that marriage is often much more than simply a dyadic experience.  When a couple enters a “home,” their children almost inevitably get involved and shape their parents relationship as much as the aides and the nurses do.  The staff at SWVA make a concerted effort to protect the privacy of married couples, but the institutional environment and the regulations take a toll.  Considering the increasingly  long lives of the global population, and the strong possibility that more couples will end their lives in long-term care facilities, it would behoove us to consider whether or not we consider this an ethical and human way for our elders to spend their last years.  At the very least, nursing homes ought to dispense with their institutional elements to the greatest degree possible, and strive to create a more home-like environment that would offer the maximum privacy and dignity possible.

The relational turbulence model argues that periods of transition in romantic relationships are ripe for upheaval due to heightened relational uncertainty and interference from partners (Solomon & Knobloch, 2004). This research explores communicative and physiological manifestations of relational turbulence during the transition to the emptynest phase of marriage. Participants completed surveys about their marriage, engaged in a videotaped conflict interaction, and provided saliva samples that were tested for cortisol levels. Multi-level modeling results indicated that relational uncertainty predicts
avoidant conflict behaviors but not approach conflict behaviors, and interference from partners predicts indirectness, topic avoidance, withdrawal, and criticism in conflict interaction between empty-nest spouses. Results also revealed that indirectness and withdrawal were positively associated with increased cortisol following conflict. In addition, indirectness, topic avoidance, and withdrawal during conflict interaction
corresponded with a more rapid decrease of cortisol following the episode, whereas criticism and demandingness were associated with an increase in cortisol.

Négocier est un terme classique tant de l'histoire économique que de l'histoire diplomatique et des relations internationales. « Faire negoce, faire trafic (negocier en Levant ; negocier de draperie) » nous dit, par exemple, le Dictionnaire de l'Académie française de 1694 mais aussi « Traiter une affaire avec quelqu'un (C'est luy qui a negocié cette affaire, ce mariage, cette reconciliation ; il a negocié la paix entre ces deux Princes. negocier un Traité. une Ligue) ». Le terme renvoie donc directement à la sphère des pratiques du marchand, du négociant, mais aussi à celle du politique : il évoque une expérience du dialogue et du compromis comme substitut à la domination unilatérale. Dans la diplomatie, négocier passe par des rituels, des cérémoniaux, la circulation des étiquettes, tantôt appropriées, adoptées, adaptées, tantôt détournées. Négocier se poursuit, même quand les relations diplomatiques sont rompues. Les techniques et les savoirs entrent dans la capacité à négocier, en sont à la fois un préalable et une immédiate conséquence. Négocier dépasse donc les seuls domaines économiques et politiques et ne s'y circonscrit pas.

Why is the American family in crisis? Some point to cultural forces such as pornography, popular culture, and secularization. Political scientist Stephen Baskerville argues that the most direct cause is the divorce regime: a government machinery that uses divorce and child custody to forcibly tear apart families, separate children from fit and loving parents, and turn ordinary law-abiding citizens into criminals in ways they are powerless to avoid.

Think you will never have to go through the horrors of divorce litigation because you don’t believe in it?  Think again.  Divorce is not necessarily something you agree to. Divorce can be forced upon you – entailing the loss of your children, expulsion from your home, confiscation of your property and earnings, and even jail without trial.  All this is now happening to law-abiding citizens who never agreed to a divorce or gave grounds for one – in ways completely beyond their control.

Nothing like this has ever before appeared in America. Driven by an extremist version of feminist ideology and highly bureaucratic in organization, the divorce machine now resembles the totalitarian regimes of the last century.  Yet its slow and subtle erosion of the private sphere of life is unprecedented.  Political correctness inhibits scholars and media pundits from confronting it, while clichés and euphemisms obfuscate the seriousness of government officials acquiring virtually absolute control over Americans’ private lives.

In this book, you will learn the shocking truth behind the clichés like "ugly divorce" and "nasty custody battle."  The family crisis originates in family law, a political underworld whose operations are shrouded in secrecy and jargon:

• What drives the rash of "parental kidnappings."
• Why the "deadbeat dad" is not only a myth but a hoax – the creation of government officials plundering parents whose children they first take away.
• What lies behind the hysteria over "domestic violence" and how this propaganda is destroying families, endangering children, and criminalizing innocent parents.
• The real causes of child abuse and how the child abuse industry distorts the truth.
• What allows family courts to operate as if the Bill of Rights simply did not exist.
• The "soft totalitarianism" being institutionalized in family law by organized feminism.

In this book, Dr. Baskerville exposes the greatest and most destructive civil rights abuse in America today. Throughout America and other Western democracies, family courts and Soviet-style bureaucracies ignore traditional protections for basic civil liberties, enter homes, take away children, and throw their parents in jail without trial.

.

The conflict in families disputing child custody cases across international borders continues to grow worldwide resulting in an epidemic of parental abduction. Governments and international bodies continue to work toward creating effective solutions through cross border family mediation programs. Ensuring a voluntary process that does not culturally alienate or marginalize participants is a challenge that often creates ethical dilemmas that may go unnoticed, minimized or ignored. When an individual is marginalized or disenfranchised during any alternative dispute resolution process as a result of cultural dilemmas, inequitability is created. Cultural bias and ignorance limits or prevents creative exploration of problem solving strategies, forcing parties into predesigned agreements. In 2012, the Hague Bureau on Private International Law released the first publication on mediation standards and guide for cross border family mediation as an extension of international family law. Building on these efforts, this paper provides a look at how culture shapes identity and influences problem solving in a multicultural context through a review of the literature and actual case examples.

The rise of modern capitalism in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries has brought significant changes in every aspect of social life, offering women the opportunity to enter the paid labour force and diminishing traditional gender-role stereotypes. However, increased women's labour force participation has further limited women's economic dependence on men, significantly lowering exit costs from bad marriages. In the same line of thought, Becker's neoclassical theory of marriage has provided a deeper insight into the possible linkages between female employment and marital instability, arguing that the gains to marriage are greatest when men specialize in paid work, while women specialize in unpaid household activities. Within this framework, the case of early twentieth-century Greece remains largely unexplored in the empirical literature, even though it represents an interesting case of a highly diversified structure of family relations characterized by early marriages and low divorce rates for both sexes. This paper attempts to fill this gap by providing the first empirical evidence for the relationship between women's labour force participation and female divorce rates in the early twentieth-century Greece. After analyzing provincial-level data from the 1907 and 1920 Greek Population Censuses, I found a positive association between female labour and female divorce rates, however, this effect is not always clear and straightforward. More specifically, total female employment and female participation in modern occupations have been found to be positively associated with female divorce rates, but statistically significant only in 1907. On the other hand, female employment in traditional agricultural activities has had no significant impact on female divorces. Other factors, such as early-age at marriage, women's educational level, availability of single men, urbanization, ethic differences, men's occupational status and religion, have been also taken into consideration.

This paper compiles research pertaining to the education of children with disabilities. It is a synthesis, drawing upon various sources in order to present the picture and story behind special needs education. Instrumental to this objective are history, law, and philosophy. Organization is based around these three prominent areas and the following issues converge with this organizational framework throughout the totality of the paper: finance, the categorization and labelling of disability, the case of giftedness, democratic vs. humanistic nature of special education, legislative ambiguity, and inclusion vs. exclusion.

A number of studies have been carried out on divorce from sociological, psychological and religious standpoints. Studies on divorce from linguistic perspective in Nigeria are hard to come by. Therefore, this paper conceives divorce as a conflict site and examines representations of participants in selected Nigerian newspaper reports on divorce cases. Data for the study were drawn from fifteen divorce reports, five from each of The Punch, The Guardian and The Nigerian Tribune newspapers published electronically between 2016 and 2018. The data were analysed using Halliday's transitivity aspect of the systemic functional linguistics and Fetzer's macro concept of context. Five processes (material, verbal, mental, relational and existential) are used in presenting both negative and positive representational strategies. Following Fetzer's categorisations, three context types (linguistic, social and socio-cultural) helped in projecting twelve representational strategies. While ...

Co-parenting after divorce has an impact on child adjustment, namely, when parenting gate- keeping and conflict occur. After separation/divorce parents coercive parenting and styles, conflict and triangulation co-parenting types can enhance child ́s vulnerability. Particularly if the child is under than 3 years of age. With an increase of divorce ratings, child custody arrangements and its impact on young children needs to addressed. We intend to explore the effects of these variables on children of separated parents with current child custody process in family court (litigious and non-litigious). The Portuguese version of Parenting Styles Questionnaire - parent's version; Co-parenting Questionnaire and Strengths & Difficulties Questionnaire where applied to 93 Portuguese parents (49 mothers; 44 fathers) of an infant aged under 3 years of old, separated from 12 to 69 months with custody process in family court to regulate child custody from 12 to 40 months. This purpose sample included 42 parents with shared custody and 51 with full custody agreements. Parents participated willingly and all ethical standards were assured. Findings enhance the predictive power of the model including authority styles (authoritative, authoritarian and permissive) and co-parenting strategies (cooperation, triangulation and conflict) on child adjustment internalized and externalized problems (emotional, behavioral and social dimensions') for both custody agreements. Overall, authoritarian parenting styles and parenting conflict exert major impact on child adjustment. Parents with full custody agreements see their children as presenting more emotional and social problems (F(3,35) = 22.27, p < .001; d = 1.11 and F(3,44) = 15.21, p < .001; d = 2.18). Findings suggest authoritarian parenting styles and parenting conflict as major contributors for poor early child adjustment and well-being, particularly in children living with one parent household in full custody agreement. We emphasize that families had an ongoing custody process in family court, which could contribute to parenting conflict. These findings suggest the need to further study the impact of full and shared child custody agreements on child adjustment and development, in early childhood. Also, we stress the importance of post- divorce parenting educational programs for helping parent's on parenting educational patterns and behaviors, communication skills, emotional regulation, and awareness of what's in the best interest of child well-being and healthy development.

War die Ehescheidung noch vor wenigen Jahrzehnten gesellschaftlich stark stigmatisiert und eher eine Ausnahmeerscheinung, gehört sie inzwischen für einen Großteil der einmal Verheirateten zur Normalbiografie. Erheblich gewandelt haben sich im 20. Jahrhundert auch die Vorstellungen davon, was eine Ehe normativ zu sein hat – und damit die als legitim erachteten und vor Gericht akzeptierten Gründe, sie aufzulösen. Thomas Mazzurana leistet einen Beitrag zu einer Soziologie der Ehescheidung, indem er in einer wissenssoziologischen Perspektive die subjektiven Begründungen und Bewertungen der Scheidung in mehreren institutionellen Feldern untersucht. Er macht in den Diskursen der Akteure die Rechtfertigungsmuster und damit die sozialen Repräsen­tationen von Ehe und ihrer institutionellen Auflösung in der Spätmoderne sichtbar.

It seems to be taken for granted by many that when Jesus condemned the practice of "putting away" a wife, he was talking about divorce as we understand it today. But, if that was the case, why have translators not consistently used the word divorce instead of put away where divorce is supposedly (according to many) the meaning? It is argued that put away and divorce mean the same thing, but is this true? Is it possible that the Jews were practicing " putting away" their wives and this practice was something different from a legal divorce, and which did not dissolve the marriage, regardless of the reason for the separation? The Law under which Jesus lived (and was obligated to follow) made provisions for a marriage to be dissolved (Deut 24:1-2, ASV) because of the hardness of man's heart (Mt 19:8).  This paper deals with what divorce is and what it isn't and explains what Jesus was really teaching in such controversial passages as Matthew 19:9.

Español: El convenio regulador y la compensación económica: una visión de conjunto

En este trabajo se analizan las consecuencias económicas que implica la ruptura matrimonial, específicamente conforme al divorcio vincular introducido por la Nueva Ley de Matrimonio Civil. En primer lugar, se revisa en detalle el convenio regulador que tiene por objetivo normar las relaciones entre los cónyuges y también respecto de sus hijos, por lo que se analizan los casos en que procede, su contenido, exigencias, formalidades y limitaciones. En segundo lugar, se desarrolla el estatuto jurídico de la compensación económica cuyo objetivo principal es otorgar una prestación al cónyuge más débil que durante los años del matrimonio se dedicó a las labores del hogar y al cuidado de los hijos, y que producto de la ruptura sufre la extinción de todos sus derechos provenientes de la relación conyugal -en especial el deber de socorro-, se analizan los principios que la inspiran, el fundamento y contenido de la misma, casos en que procede, vías de fijación y régimen de pago. Finalmente se analiza críticamente a estas figuras por la inseguridad jurídica de su regulación que en la práctica deberán ser mejoradas por los tribunales.

English: The regulating agreement and the financial compensation: An overwiew

This paper analyze the economic consequences that marital breakdown involves, specifically according to vincular divorce introduced by the New Civil Marriage Law. First of all, the article reviews in detail the regulating agreement that has the aim of adjust relationships between spouses and, also with their sons, so it analyze the appropriate cases, content of it, requirements, formalities and limitations. Secondly, the article develops the legal status of financial compensation whose main objective it is give a benefit to the weaker spouse who during years of marriage dedicated himself to household tasks and child care, and because of marital breakdown suffer the extinction of all his marital rights –in especial the provide assistance-, it analyze the principles behind, the basis and content of it, appropriate cases, fastening ways and payment system. Finally, it analyze critically these figures because of the legal uncertainty that in the practice must be improved by the courts.