Land Surface Temperature

We evaluate the utility of remote thermal image data for mapping geomorphic features and evidence of sedimentary processes on the surfaces of alluvial fans. Prior studies of alluvial fans have made extensive use of visible images and traditional field-based techniques. As a case study demonstration of this technique, we compare thermal images acquired from the ground and a light aircraft (altitude ~5000 ft) to a pre-existing ground-based map of features on the Dolomite Fan in Owens Valley, California. Thermal images from the aircraft were acquired at several times of day to determine how the surface temperatures of the alluvial fan rise and fall throughout a diurnal cycle. We have also acquired thermal images from the ground at 5 minute intervals over the course of a diurnal cycle. The aerial thermal images (ground resolution ~2 m/pixel) reveal evidence of a variety of sedimentary processes that have acted on the fan surface. These images show spatialthermophysical patterns associated with clast-rich and clast-poor debris flows, debris-flow levees and the change in particle size at the toe of the fan. The locations of these features in the thermal images match the locations of the features previously mapped by others using traditional ground-based field sedimentology techniques. All debris flows that are exposed at the fan surface are evident in the aerial thermal images, including those that have been heavily weathered and are difficult to observe in visible images. This case study demonstrates that aerial thermal images can be used to provide reconnaissance of an alluvial fan, suggest what sedimentary processes have most recently acted on the surface of the fan, and to prioritize sites for detailed study on the ground.

China has experienced rapid urbanization and dramatic economic growth since its reform process started in late 1978. In this article, we present evidence for a significant urbanization effect on climate based on analysis of impacts of land-use changes on surface temperature in southeast China, where rapid urbanization has occurred. Our estimated warming of mean surface temperature of 0.05°C per decade attributable to urbanization is much larger than previous estimates for other periods and locations. The spatial pattern and magnitude of our estimate are consistent with those of urbanization characterized by changes in the percentage of urban population and in satellite-measured greenness.

The scaling of calcium sulfate was studied by performing laboratory experiments under controlled conditions. The experiments were aimed at measuring the rate of deposition at different positions on a heated surface. The overall thermal resistance was determined from temperatures measured using thermocouples positioned in the bulk fluid and the wall of the heated plate. Calcium sulfate was used as the experimental fluid. It was observed that nucleates started forming on the downstream side. A nucleation front was formed, and it was seen to move from the downstream to the upstream side. The rate of growth as a function of position was observed to increase with the initial wall temperature distribution, resulting in a final thickness of the scale layer that increases accordingly. While the rate of growth was found to be independent of flow velocity for Reynolds numbers of 11,000 and 23,000, the results showed that the rate of growth decreased by about 20% for Re = = 34,000. Further, the induction period is reduced by increasing the flow velocity. An increase in the degree of supersaturation also reduces the induction period. It is concluded that scaling due to CaSO 4 results in a non-uniform porous scale layer with a profile that mimics the initial surface temperature.

Changes in both land cover and the atmosphere have impacted the heat fluxes of south Asia in ways that may have altered the timing and magnitude of the monsoon. Century-long budgets of water and energy in the Krishna Basin (258,948 km 2 ) in southern India demonstrate that irrigation impacted the sensible heat flux of the land surface (H) as much as or more than did the atmospheric brown cloud (ABC) over 1960-2005. Annual discharge of the Krishna River fell from 226 mm during pre-irrigation land cover to 64 mm by 1990-2005, when 14-20% of the basin area was irrigated. Over the same period, annual evaporation increased by 166 ± 32 mm (+28%) causing H to decrease by 12.7 ± 2 W m À2 (À18%) compared to a decrease of 11.2 ± 1.8 W m À2 caused by the atmospheric brown cloud (ABC). The rate of change in H during irrigation expansion was between À3.4 and À5.0 W m À2 per decade (da À1 ) due to irrigation expansion and À1.8 to À2.3 W m À2 da À1 due to the ABC. The trend in H caused by irrigation was negligible over 1990-2005 as irrigated area and evaporation stabilized. Previous work using the Parallel Climate Model estimated that the ABC decreased the latent heat flux by 2.4 W m À2 ; this decrease was more than offset by irrigation, resulting in a net increase in the latent heat flux of 12.9 W m À2 . The maximum surface air temperature (Tmax) either decreased or remained the same in areas experiencing irrigation expansion but increased in a majority of unirrigated areas during the post-monsoon season. The results provide observational evidence that irrigation changed both the basin-scale sensible heat flux and surface air temperatures.

This study investigated the influences of urbanization on urban ecological and thermal environment as well as the relationships of all the biophysical parameters with each other utilizing multi-temporal datasets of CORONA (1967), Landsat TM (1992 and 2009), Landsat ETM+ (2002), IRS R2 LISS-3 (2012) and Landsat 8 (2014). The urban environmental issues related to land use and land cover, greenness, surface wetness and impervious surface were assessed using change detection, SAVI, MNDWI and IBI models respectively. The land surface temperature (LST) was also retrieved from thermal infrared band of each Landsat TM, ETM+ and Landsat 8. Based on these parameters, the urban expansion, urban heat island effect and the relationships of LSTs to other biophysical parameters were analyzed. Results indicate the area ratio of impervious surface in Pune sub-urban zone increased significantly, which grew from 1.41 % in 1967 to 8.47 % in 1992 and further to 22.45 % and 44.7 % in 2002 and 2014 respec...

This paper proposes a particular approach to assess information about soil degradation, based on a methodology to calculate soil color from NOAA/AVHRR data. As erosive processes change physical and chemical properties of the soil, altering, consequently, the superficial color, monitoring the change in color over time can help to identify and analyze those processes. A relationship among the soil color (described in the Munsell Color System, i.e., in terms of Hue, Value and Chroma), vegetation indices, surface temperature and emissivity has been established, which is based on the theoretical model. The methodology has three main phases: determination of the regression models among soil color and vegetation indices, emissivity and surface temperature; generation of digital soil color models; and statistical evaluation of the estimated color. The tests showed that the methodology is efficient in determining soil color using the various vegetation indices (i.e., Normalized vegetation index NDVI, Modified soil adjusted vegetation index MSAVI). One vegetation index, i.e., Purified adjusted vegetation index (PAVI) is proposed to subsidies the effect of vegetation over the soil. Best results were obtained for the Hue color component. To further test the methodology, the estimated digital color models were compared with the characteristic color of soil classes in the test area. The results of this application confirmed the meth-odologyÕs capacity to determine the soil color from NOAA/AVHRR data. This type of study is quite helpful to know the erosion of soil as well as some abrupt change in soil due to natural hazards by space borne or air-borne sensors.

New Horizons flies past MU69After flying past Pluto in 2015, the New Horizons spacecraft shifted course to encounter (486958) 2014 MU69, a much smaller body about 30 kilometers in diameter. MU69is part of the Kuiper Belt, a collection of small icy bodies orbiting in the outer Solar System. Sternet al.present the initial results from the New Horizons flyby of MU69on 1 January 2019. MU69consists of two lobes that appear to have merged at low speed, producing a contact binary. This type of Kuiper Belt object is mostly undisturbed since the formation of the Solar System and so will preserve clues about that process.Science, this issue p.eaaw9771

In this study, two different change detection techniques were applied in order to assess land cover changes in El Rawashda forest, Sudan: comparison of classification and multivariate alteration detection. Firstly, two satellite imagery, acquired in 2003 by Landsat ETM+ and by ASTER in 2006, were classified into four main land cover classes namely grass land, close forest, open forest and bare land. A change matrix was created in order to map the land cover changes from 2003 to 2006. Generally, the results show a noticeable increase in area on both close forest and open forest areas with decrease in grass lands within the period 2003-2006. More than one third of grassland (36%) was converted to close forest, one fourth ( ) to open forest areas. In the three-year period, 9079 hectares of open forest, (8% of the investigation area), were transformed to close forest. Secondly, we perform linear transformation by applying the multivariate alteration detection (MAD), the MAD components were then examined to identify the quality of changes.

The Goldstein-Ruban theory has been extended within the quasi-parallel framework of Zavol'skii el al. to study the acoustic receptivity of compressible boundary layers. We consider the receptivity produced in a region of localized, small-amplitude variation in the surface temperature and compare it with the receptivity that is induced through a similar mechanism by a variation in the suction velocity at the surface. The orientation of the acoustic wave can have a significant impact on the receptivity process, with the maximum receptivity at a given sound-pressure level produced by upstreamoriented acoustic waves. At sufficiently low Math numbers, the variation of receptivity with the acoustic-wave orientation can be predicted analytically and is the same for both surface suction and surface heating. However, as a result of the acoustic refraction across the mean boundary layer, the above dependence can become complex and dependent upon the type of surface nonuniformity. The results also suggest that the receptivity caused by temperature nonnniformities may turn out to be more significant than that produced by the mean-flow perturbations associated with strip suction. of the viscous-inviscid interactive Tollmien-Schlichting mode (TS) (Ryzhov and Zhuk 1986, Smith 1989) which dominates the primary instability of two-dimensional boundary layers at subsonic and moderately supersonic speeds. Consequently, the wavelength reduction mechanisms previously identified by Goldstein (1983, 1985), and (1985) are also directly relevant to the generation of the viscous-inviscid interactive modes in compressible boundary layers.

An infrared thermometer, spectroradiometer and digital video camera were used to observe and document shortterm evolution of surface brightness temperature and morphology at Santiaguito lava dome, Guatemala. The thermometer dataset shows 40 -70 minute-long cooling cycles, each defined by a cooling curve that is both initiated and terminated by rapid increases in temperature due to regular ash venting. The average cooling rate calculated for each cycle range from 0.9 to 1.6°C/min. We applied a twocomponent thermal mixture model to the spectroradiometer (0.4 -2.5 mm) dataset. The results suggest that the observed surface morphology changed from a cool (120-250°C) crust-dominated surface with high temperature fractures (>900°C) in the first segment of the measurement period to an isothermal surface at moderately high temperature (350 -500°C) during the second segment. We attribute the change in the thermal state of the surface to the physical rearrangement of the dome's surface during the most energetic of the ash eruptions.

Comprehending the interactions between humans and their environment necessitates modeling human-environment interactions. This study employs time-series satellite imagery from Landsat Thematic Mapper (1995 and 2009) and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (2022) to examine land use/land cover (LULC) change in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, after image pre-processing with the Google Earth engine code editor, while random forest machine learning in R classified LULC. Geographically weighted regression (GWR) correlates LULC changes to socioeconomic factors spatially. Analysis reveals a dynamic LULC transformation between 1995 and 2022, with a 14.9% increase in built-up areas and a 14.6% decline in bushland. Out of the total LULC, 65.8% experienced gains and losses, while 34.2% remained stable. The GWR model, surpassing the ordinary least squares (OLS) model, achieves an R 2 value of 0.73, indicating a strong relationship between LULC changes and socioeconomic factors, explaining 73% of the variation. The influences of these factors exhibit variations across different LULC change types. Population density and proximity to the city center significantly contribute to LULC changes, while the impacts of gross domestic product and distance to roads are comparatively less significant. Poverty does not drive LULC changes significantly. The findings indicate that urbanization and urban sprawl, influenced by population density and distance from the city center, significantly impact land use and cover changes. Effective urban planning strategies should be prioritized to address this, considering factors such as population density and distance from the city center to mitigate the considerable effects on land use and cover changes in the study area.

The third edition of Handbook of Heat Transfer provides expanded treatment of the funda-
mental topics covered in earlier editions. More than half of the authors of these basic chapters
on conduction, convection, radiation, condensation, and boiling are new, reflecting the fact
that there are new leaders in the field. Those chapters in the second edition dealing with
applications related to the so-called energy crisis (solar energy, energy storage, cooling tow-
ers, etc.) have been replaced by new chapters treating heat transfer problems encountered in
materials processing, porous media, and micro scale systems. Sections on the following topics
were retained and updated: thermophysical properties, heat transfer enhancement, heat
exchangers, heat pipes, fluidized beds, nonnewtonian fluids, and measurement techniques

Evapotranspiration is a reliable indicator of wetland health. Wetlands are an important and valuable ecosystem on the South Florida landscape. Accurate wetland Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) data can be used to evaluate the performance of South Florida's Everglades restoration programs. However, reliable AET measurements rely on scattered point measurements restricting applications over a larger area. The objective of this study was to validate the ability of the Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEB) approach and the Simple Method (also called the Abtew Method) to provide large area AET estimates for wetland recovery efforts. The study used Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor spectral data and South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) solar radiation data to derive weekly AET values for South Florida. The SSEB-Simple Method approach provided acceptable results with good agreement with observed values during the critical dry season period, when cloud cover was low (rave (n = 59) = 0.700, pave < 0.0005), but requires further refinement to be viable for yearly estimates because of poor performance during wet season months, mainly because of cloud contamination. The approach can be useful for short-term wetland recovery assessment projects that occur during the dry season and/or long term projects that compare site AET rates from dry season to dry season.

We attempt to identify thermal anomalies using thermal infrared (TIR) data collected over the Coso Geothermal Power Project with the spaceborne ASTER instrument. Our analysis emphasizes correc- tions for thermal artifacts in the satellite images caused by topography, albedo, and thermal inertia. This approach leads to noise reduction and has the potential to reveal thermal anomalies which are weak or not distinguishable in the uncorrected imagery. We have carried out field experiments concurrent with the collection of pairs of daytime and nighttime ASTER images over Coso. The field data include subsurface temperature measured with temperature probes at depths down to 1 m, surface temperatures recorded with a hand-held infrared camera and an infrared thermometer, reflectance of contrasting sur- faces measured with a hand-held spectroradiometer for the purpose of estimating the albedo effect, and radiosonde atmospheric profiles of temperature, wa- ter vapor, and pressure in order to a...

A technique for longwave infrared (LWIR) synthetic image generation (510) is shown which yields improved radiomeiric accuracy in the 8-14 .tm bandpass. This process uses a modified LOWTRAN 6 atmospheric transmission/upwelled radiance code and computer graphics ray-tracing techniques. A scene is created by placing faceted objects into world coordinates with rotation, translation, and scaling parameters. Each facet is assigned a material index and temperature. The material index points to optical properties for that material. The modified LOWTRAN 6 code incorporates sensor response function when computing tables of the atmospheric transmission and upwelled and downwelled radiances. A ray-traced image is then generated. A final synthetic LWIR scene is generated to geometrically match an actual acquired scene so that radiometric comparisons can be made.

The adsorption behavior of Benzimidazol-2-one (Bz), 5-Methylbenzimidazol-2-one(CH3Bz) and 5-Chlorobenzimidazol-2-one (ClBz) as inhibitors for mild steel corrosion in HCl 1M have been studied computationally using density functional theory (DFT) calculations with the hybrid B3LYP functional. The calculations were focused on the protonated forms of the molecules under study, seeing that these classes of inhibitors can easily be protonated in acidic medium. The most preferred protonation centers were determined proton affinity (PA). Fukui indices have been computed to evaluate the nucleophilic and electrophilic sites of atoms in the molecule. The interaction of the inhibitors with the iron surface was studied by calculating the combined energy (Ecom) and the free energy of adsorption ( ΔG°ads ). Observable correlation was found between experimental corrosion inhibition efficiency and the theoretical data. The molecular dynamics (MD) and Monte Carlo (MC) simulations used show that all i...

Water storage drums are often a primary breeding site for Aedes aegypti in developing countries. Habitat characteristics can impact both adult and larval fitness and survival, which may potentially influence arbovirus transmission. Our objective was to compare fundamental environmental differences in water drums based on the presence or absence of larvae in Trinidad. Drums were categorized according to the larval status, and if the drum was constructed of steel or plastic. Water samples were analyzed for ammonium, nitrate, and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP). Continuous surface water temperatures were also recorded. Nutrient concentrations were considerably lower than those reported for other container breeding mosquitoes. No nutrient measured differed in concentration between drums positive compared to those that were negative for the presence of A. aegypti larvae. Levels of SRP and ammonium in steel drums were significantly lower than in plastic water drums. Both maximum and minimum surface temperatures were significantly lower in drums positive for the presence of larvae than in drums without larvae. Water temperatures in March and May were warmer than during October sampling periods. Larval presence is likely dependent upon the interaction among multiple biotic and abiotic factors. Despite appearance, not all water storage drums are equally suitable for A. aegypti development. Exposing water storage drums to direct sunlight or increased heat may be used in conjunction with sealing containers to reduce production of A. aegypti when draining and chemical treatment are impractical.

Water storage drums are often a primary breeding site for Aedes aegypti in developing countries. Habitat characteristics can impact both adult and larval fitness and survival, which may potentially influence arbovirus transmission. Our objective was to compare fundamental environmental differences in water drums based on the presence or absence of larvae in Trinidad. Drums were categorized according to the larval status, and if the drum was constructed of steel or plastic. Water samples were analyzed for ammonium, nitrate, and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP). Continuous surface water temperatures were also recorded. Nutrient concentrations were considerably lower than those reported for other container breeding mosquitoes. No nutrient measured differed in concentration between drums positive compared to those that were negative for the presence of A. aegypti larvae. Levels of SRP and ammonium in steel drums were significantly lower than in plastic water drums. Both maximum and minimum surface temperatures were significantly lower in drums positive for the presence of larvae than in drums without larvae. Water temperatures in March and May were warmer than during October sampling periods. Larval presence is likely dependent upon the interaction among multiple biotic and abiotic factors. Despite appearance, not all water storage drums are equally suitable for A. aegypti development. Exposing water storage drums to direct sunlight or increased heat may be used in conjunction with sealing containers to reduce production of A. aegypti when draining and chemical treatment are impractical.

Como es bien conocido, existe un acoplamiento entre la temperatura y la emisividad de la superficie terrestre cuando se trabaja en el campo de la teledetección infrarroja desde satélites, de manera que no se puede obtener una si no se conoce la otra. Este problema puede resolverse si se consideran algunas hipótesis acerca del valor de la emisividad o bien de la temperatura. En el caso del método TES (Temperature and Emissivity Separation) desarrollado por Gillespie et al. (1998) y que presentaremos en este artículo, la hipótesis de partida consiste en considerar un valor inicial para la emisividad con el fin de obtener una estimación de la temperatura de la superficie terrestre y obtener finalmente un nuevo valor para la emisividad. Para poder aplicar el método se requieren varios canales térmicos, por lo que no puede ser aplicado a plataformas como Landsat o NOAA.

The AHS (Airborne Hyperspectral Scanner) instrument has 80 spectral bands covering the visible and near infrared (VNIR), short wave infrared (SWIR), mid infrared (MIR) and thermal infrared (TIR) spectral range. The instrument is operated by Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aerospacial (INTA), and it has been involved in several field campaigns since 2004. This paper presents an overview of the work performed with the AHS thermal imagery provided in the framework of the SPARC and SEN2FLEX campaigns, carried out respectively in 2004 and 2005 over an agricultural area in Spain. The data collected in both campaigns allowed for the first time the development and testing of algorithms for land surface temperature and emissivity retrieval as well as the estimation of evapotranspiration from AHS data. Errors were found to be around 1.5 K for land surface temperature and 1 mm/day for evapotranspiration.

This paper assessed the percent impervious surface as indicators of surface urban heat island effects in a tropical rapidly urbanizing environment by investigating the change that occurred over 29 years period starting from 1986-2015. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Operational Land Imager (OLI) data were used to estimate the land surface temperature (LST) for two different periods in the study area. A map of percent impervious surface was also generated for the same period using linear spectral mixture analysis. The results showed that the change in impervious surface value ranged from-9% to 51% between 1984 and 2006, while, the minimum values of LST increased by 2.6°C whereas the maximum LST values exhibited a decrease by 8.5°C; the mean LST values increased by 4.6°C within the same period. The results indicate that increase in imperviousness results in higher temperature. Over the years, the gradual transition of land use from suburban to urban land in peri-urban districts around the highly urbanized hotspots resulted in an increase of 51% in the imperviousness and 29% in temperature. This result suggests that uncontrolled rapid population increase resulting in expansion of impervious surfaces can lead to significant increase in urban heat island formation in urban and peri-urban districts.

Exocometary rings, consisting of icy planetesimals and dust, are integral components of exoplanetary systems. This study leverages recent surveys, which have revealed structural and compositional diversity among 74 such rings. Utilizing observations from ALMA and SMA, we uncover the presence of millimeter-sized pebbles, suggesting locations for exocomets and serving as essential ice reservoirs. The findings also indicate a notable decline in pebble density in older systems due to collisional depletions, particularly in proximal rings to central stars. The structural diversity and vertical thickness of these rings hint at unobservable, significant objects, possibly as large as the moon. Moreover, this paper explores the implications of these findings in the context of the Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT), examining how the observed phenomena align with the CIT's predictions of continuous mass-energy influx in celestial formations. This connection offers a new lens through which to view both exocometary rings and broader cosmological dynamics, challenging traditional paradigms and suggesting a comprehensive model for understanding universal mass-energy processes.

The incidence of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) has declined in response to campaigns discouraging the prone sleeping position. Recent work suggests some SIDS death may be in response to bacterial toxins produced in the upper airway. A minimal temperature of 37³C is required for induction of the pyrogenic toxins of Staphylococcus aureus identified in many SIDS infants. This aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the prone position raises the temperature of the upper airways in children. A pilot study of 10 children (aged 3^8) and a main study of 30 children were carried out. Nasal septal temperatures were measured with an infra-red thermometer with the subjects in upright and prone positions under controlled conditions of ambient temperature and humidity. In both the pilot study and main study, nasal temperatures in the prone position were significantly higher (P 6 0.01) Five subjects' prone readings were 37³C or higher. These findings suggest that lying prone raises the upper airway surface temperature towards that required for toxin production. This could be one means by which the prone sleeping position contributes to the risk of SIDS.

A major accomplishment of the recently completed Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Program was the development of an ocean observing system to support seasonal-to-interannual climate studies. This paper reviews the scientific motivations for the development of that observing system, the technological advances that made it possible, and the scientific advances that resulted from the availability of a significantly expanded observational database. A primary phenomenological focus of TOGA was interannual variability of the coupled oceanatmosphere system associated with E1 Nifio and the Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Prior to the start of TOGA, our understanding of the physical processes responsible for the ENSO cycle was limited, our ability to monitor variability in the troi•ical oceans was primitive, and the capability to predict ENSO was nonexistent. TOGA therefore initiated and/or supported efforts to provide real-time measurements of the following key oceanographic variables: surface winds, sea surface temperature, subsurface temperature, sea level and ocean velocity. Specific in situ observational programs developed to provide these data sets included the Tropical Atmosphere-Ocean (TAO) array of moored buoys in the Pacific, a surface drifting buoy program, an island and coastal tide gauge network, and a volunteer observing ship network of expendable bathythermograph measurements. Complementing these in situ efforts were satellite missions which provided near-global coverage of surface winds, sea surface temperature, and sea level. These new TOGA data sets led to fundamental progress in our understanding of the physical processes responsible for ENSO and to the development of coupled ocean-atmosphere models for ENSO prediction. And thorough this distemperature we see the seasons alter... Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream" Act 2, Scene 1 1. Introduction E1 Nifio (EN) is characterized by a large-scale weakening of the trade winds and warming of the surface l•vers in the eastern and central equatorial Pacific Ocean. • Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, NOAA, Seattle, Washington.

The possibility that dark matter particles could be constituted by extreme regular primordial black holes is discussed. Extreme black holes have zero surface temperature, and are not subjected to the Hawking evaporation process. Assuming that the common horizon radius of these black holes is fixed by the minimum distance that is derived from the Riemann invariant computed from loop quantum gravity, the masses of these non-singular stable black holes are of the order of the Planck mass. However, if they are formed just after inflation, during reheating, their initial masses are about six orders of magnitude higher. After a short period of growth by the accretion of relativistic matter, they evaporate until reaching the extreme solution. Only a fraction of 3.8 × 10 -22 of relativistic matter is required to be converted into primordial black holes (PBHs) in order to explain the present abundance of dark matter particles. Keywords: regular black holes; thermodynamics of black holes; dark matter 48. Dymnikova, I.; Khoplov, M. Regular black hole remnants and graviatoms with de Sitter interior as heavy dark matter candidates probing inhomogeneity of early Universe.

AimAlthough species distribution models (SDMs) traditionally link species occurrences to free‐air temperature data at coarse spatio‐temporal resolution, the distribution of organisms might instead be driven by temperatures more proximal to their habitats. Several solutions are currently available, such as downscaled or interpolated coarse‐grained free‐air temperatures, satellite‐measured land surface temperatures (LST) or in‐situ‐measured soil temperatures. A comprehensive comparison of temperature data sources and their performance in SDMs is, however, currently lacking.LocationNorthern Scandinavia.Time period1970–2017.Major taxa studiedHigher plants.MethodsWe evaluated different sources of temperature data (WorldClim, CHELSA, MODIS, E‐OBS, topoclimate and soil temperature from miniature data loggers), differing in spatial resolution (from 1″ to 0.1°), measurement focus (free‐air, ground‐surface or soil temperature) and temporal extent (year‐long versus long‐term averages), and use...

In this paper, we report the results of quality control based in elemental impurities determination of 12 raw materials samples of Ciprofloxacin hydrochloride and Fluconazole intended for the manufacture of their generic products marketed in Algeria. These samples were supplied by different pharmaceuticals companies. Heavy metals limit test and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) were used to control and quantify the elemental impurities in these samples. The limit tests results showed that all samples were conformers except F5 sample. The ICP-OES analysis showed that the content of each element is normal in all samples except Cobalt content is greater than the limit required in C4 sample. The highlighting of certain elemental impurties exceeds safety standards confirm that heavy metals test is neither specific nor exact, so it&#39;s recommended to apply the new procedures based on safety data which are well described in the USP new chapters or the Eur...

Ten cities with different population and urban sizes located in the Pearl River Delta, Guangdong Province, P.R. China were selected to study the relationships between the spatial extent of surface urban heat islands (SUHI) and five urban characteristic factors such as urban size, development area, water proportion, mean NDVI (Normalized Vegetation Index) and population density, etc. The spatial extent of SUHI was quantified by using the hot island area (HIA). All the cities are almost at the same latitude, showing similar climate and solar radiation, the influence of which could thus be eliminated during our computation and comparative study. The land surface temperatures (LST) were retrieved from the data of Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) band 6 using a mono-window algorithm. A variance-segmenting method was proposed to compute HIA for each city from the retrieved LST. Factors like urban size, development area and water proportion were extracted directly from the classification images of the same ETM+ data and the population density factor is from the official census. Correlation and regression analyses were performed to study the relationships between the HIA and the related factors, and the results show that HIA is highly correlated to urban size (r=0.95), population density (r=0.97) and development area (r=0.83) in this area. It was also proved that a weak negative correlation existed between HIA and both mean NDVI and water proportion for each city. Linear functions between HIA and its related factors were

A C++ language-based software tool for retrieving land surface temperature (LST) from the data of Landsat TM/ ETM+ band6 is developed. It has two main functional modules: (1) Three methods to compute the ground emissivity based on land use/cover classification image, NDVI image and the ratio values of vegetation and bare ground and (2) Converting digital numbers (DNs) from TM/ETM+ band6 to LST. In the software tool, Qin et al.'s mono-window algorithm and Jime´nez-Munˇoz and Sobrino's single channel algorithm are programmed to retrieve LST. It will be a useful software tool to study the thermal environment of ground surface or the energy balance between the ground and the bottom atmosphere by using the thermal band of Landsat TM/ETM+.

Heat transfer enhancement and entropy generation are investigated in a nanofluid, stagnation-point flow over a cylinder embedded in a porous medium. The external surface of cylinder includes non-uniform transpiration. A semi-similarity technique is employed to numerically solve the three-dimensional momentum equations and two-equation model of transport of thermal energy for the flow and heat transfer in porous media. The mathematical model considers nonlinear thermal radiation, magnetohydrodynamics, mixed convection and local thermal non-equilibrium in the porous medium. The nanofluid and porous solid temperature fields as well as those of Bejan number are visualised, and the values of circumferentially averaged Nusselt number are reported. The results show that thermal radiation significantly influences the temperature fields and hence affects Nusselt and Bejan number. In general, more radiative systems feature higher Nusselt numbers and less thermal irreversibilities. It is also shown that changes in the numerical value of Biot number can considerably modify the predicted value of Nusselt number and that the local thermal equilibrium modelling may significantly underpredict the Nusselt number. Magnetic forces, however, are shown to impart modest effects upon heat transfer rates. Yet, they can significantly augment frictional irreversibility and therefore reduce the value of Bejan number. It is noted that the current work is the first systematic analysis of a stagnation-point flow in curved configurations with the inclusion of nonlinear thermal radiation and local thermal non-equilibrium.

The expansion of bare sand surfaces indicates a tendency towards desertfication in certain periods as a result of the improper agricultural use of sand soils and of the significant changes in the climate in the past 30 years. The Normalised Sand Index (NSI) is a new index used to identify bare sand areas and their spatio-temporal evolution in SW Romania. Landsat scenes (1988, 2001, 2019), spectral and soil texture analysis (36 samples), covariates (e.g., soil map), and field observations allowed for the validation of the results. The performance of the NSI was compared with indices from the sand index family (e.g., Normalized Differential Sand Areas Index) and supervised classifications (e.g., Maximum Likelihood Classification) based on 47 random control square areas for which the soil texture is known. A statistical analysis of the NSI showed 23.6% (27,310.14 hectares) of bare sands in 1988, followed by an accelerated increase to 47.2% (54,737.73 hectares) in 2001 because of economic and land-use changes, and a lower increase by 2019, which reached 52.5% (60,852.42 hectares) due to reforestation programs. Compared to the NSI, the bare sand areas obtained with the tested indicator were almost 20% higher. The traditional classification shows smaller areas of bare sands but uses a higher complexity of land use classes, while the producer accuracy values are lower than those of the NSI. The new index has achieved a correct spatial delimitation of soils in the interdune-dune and major riverbed-interfluvial areas, but it is limited to the transition Arenosols-Chernozems by humus content and agrotechnical works. The new spectral index favours bare sand monitoring and is a fast and inexpensive method of observing the desertification trend of temperate sandy agroecosystems in the context of climate change.

Soil surface wetness is indispensable land surface parameter in agriculture, hydrology and environmental engineering. This paper explores the relationship between surface radiant temperature and fractional vegetation cover derived from satellite imagery to estimate soil surface wetness (triangle method) in Allahabad district. The pixel distributions create triangular shapes because the range of surface radiant temperature decreases as the amount of vegetation cover increases and sufficient number of pixels exists. A very weak correlation is found between the simulated soil surface wetness and ground measured soil moisture at deeper soil layers (R 2 < 0.15) on all the dates under investigation. This is because the drying rates at the surface discontinue to be linearly correlated to that at lower levels (depths). The standing water pixels distort the shape of the triangle especially at lower left edge of the triangle. This distortion is removable. The spatial and temporal inhomogeneity of soil surface wetness is examined.

This paper focuses on the microclimatic features of open spaces in the centre of urban blocks and their microclimatic effects on the adjoining buildings and on the parent city at large. The paper reports on air and surface temperature, relative humidity, air velocity and illuminance readings taken in the summer of 2003 in four urban blocks in the city of Thessaloniki, northern Greece. The measurements revealed microclimatic differences, between, as well as within, the four blocks and were used for the calibration of microclimate simulation software ENVI-met. Microclimatic simulations together with solar access studies were performed to investigate possible environmental improvements. The paper summarises the resulting design proposals for microclimatic modifications that can support a variety of uses of the spaces, as well as potential improvements to environmental conditions in the surrounding buildings.

AimAlthough species distribution models (SDMs) traditionally link species occurrences to free‐air temperature data at coarse spatio‐temporal resolution, the distribution of organisms might instead be driven by temperatures more proximal to their habitats. Several solutions are currently available, such as downscaled or interpolated coarse‐grained free‐air temperatures, satellite‐measured land surface temperatures (LST) or in‐situ‐measured soil temperatures. A comprehensive comparison of temperature data sources and their performance in SDMs is, however, currently lacking.LocationNorthern Scandinavia.Time period1970–2017.Major taxa studiedHigher plants.MethodsWe evaluated different sources of temperature data (WorldClim, CHELSA, MODIS, E‐OBS, topoclimate and soil temperature from miniature data loggers), differing in spatial resolution (from 1″ to 0.1°), measurement focus (free‐air, ground‐surface or soil temperature) and temporal extent (year‐long versus long‐term averages), and use...

I would like to draw the attention of members of the Decadal Survey Committee to a rather fundamental discovery, which (I believe) will have a major impact on the Earth and Planetary Sciences in the coming years. We have been able to establish that all igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks, e.g. essentially the majority of the rocks in Earth’s crust, presumably also on Mars, Venus and Moon, contain electronic charge carriers that have been overlooked/ignored. These charge carriers pre-exist in the constituent minerals, albeit in an electrically inactive, dormant form. The charge carriers are activated by (i) heat, (ii) stress and probably (iii) UV. They have the unusual capability to flow out of the heated/stressed volume and to spread into the surrounding colder/unstressed rocks. The charge carriers travel fast and far. Their phase velocity is of the order of 200 m/sec. They can propagate over meters in laboratory experiments, presumably kilometers to tens of kilometers in the f...

A fully coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model is used to simulate climate conditions during the last glacial maximum (LGM). Forcing conditions include astronomical parameters, greenhouse gases, ice sheets and vegetation. A 50-yr period of the global simulation is dynamically downscaled to 50 km horizontal resolution over Europe with a regional climate model (RCM). A dynamic vegetation model is used to produce vegetation that is consistent with the climate simulated by the RCM. This vegetation is used in a final simulation with the RCM. The resulting climate is 5-10 • C colder than the recent past climate (representative of year 1990) over ice-free parts of Europe as an annual average; over the ice-sheet up to 40 • C colder in winter. The average model-proxy error is about the same for summer and winter, for pollen-based proxies. The RCM results are within (outside) the uncertainty limits for winter (summer). Sensitivity studies performed with the RCM indicate that the simulated climate is sensitive to changes in vegetation, whereas the location of the ice sheet only affects the climate around the ice sheet. The RCM-simulated interannual variability in near surface temperature is significantly larger at LGM than in the recent past climate.

In many growing regions of the world, including humid regions, sugarcane is cultivated under full or supplementary irrigation. When rainfalls are irregular in time and quantity, the calculation of complementary irrigation amounts to apply, as well as the decision of when to start and stop the irrigation, is not easy to implement. This is the case on Reunion Island, a tropical territory of France that lies in the Indian Ocean. In this region, the high variability of soil types also complicates the use of traditional irrigation scheduling methods. Some of these methods are based on water balance computation that requires soil measurements that are time consuming and not easy to implement. Other approaches require destructive plant measurements (e.g. leaf water status), or sophisticated equipment (e.g. for sap flow measurements) that present the same inconvenient and provide only local information on the water status of the targeted field. The solution can be found in water balance modelling, as presented by Chopart et al. (2007aChopart et al. ( , 2007b) ) who developed OSIRI, a decision-making tool for monitoring irrigation of small farms in heterogeneous environments. The tool, currently used in Reunion, is based on a simple water balance simulation model (PROBE) ) coupled with a comprehensive set of decisions rules. However, to be totally accurate, water balance modelling needs local soil and root information and regular updating (like new water balance calculations taking into account actual rainfalls) . It is also recommended to check the water status of the crop in situ. Consequently, it could be interesting to find a non-destructive and easy way to characterize, in situ, the water status of the crop, as a complement to the water balance model. In the past few decades, new approaches for plant water status sensing have been proposed using infrared thermometry. Canopy temperature has been known for a long time to be linked to the Agricultural Water Management 97 (2010) 75-82

The thermodynamic analysis of a V-type Stirling-cycle Refrigerator (VSR) is performed for air, hydrogen and helium as the working fluid and the performance of the VSR is investigated. The V-type Stirling-cycle refrigerator consists of expansion and compression spaces, cooler, heater and regenerator, and it is assumed that the control volumes are subjected to a periodic mass flow. The basic equations of the VSR are derived for per unit crank angle, so time does not appear in the equations. A computer program is prepared in FORTRAN, and the basic equations are solved iteratively. The mass, temperature and density of working fluid in each control volume are calculated for different charge pressures, engine speeds, and for fixed heater and cooler surface temperatures. The work, instantaneous pressure and the COP of the VSR are calculated. The results are obtained for different working fluids, and given by diagrams.

The issue of using remotely sensed surface temperature to estimate the areaaverage sensible heat flux over surfaces made up of different vegetated patches has been investigated. The performance of three aggregation procedures, ranging from physically based through semi-empirical, to entirely empirical has been assessed by comparing measured and simulated area-average sensible heat flux. The results show that the physically based scheme perform very well. The performance of the entirely empirical scheme was reasonable but that of the semi-empirical scheme, which actually takes full advantage of remotely sensed data, was very poorly. This result suggests that unlike the case of surface fluxes, it is not appropriate to use relationships between model and observational variables (here radiative and aerodynamic surface temperature) that were developed and calibrated at a local/patch scale, for an application at a larger/grid scale just by scaling the parameters. Therefore, future research should be directed towards building robust relationships between model and observational variables directly at the large-scale.

In this work we consider the role of muons in various URCA processes relevant for neutrino emissions in the core region of neutron stars. The calculations are done for β-stable nuclear matter with and without muons. We find muons to appear at densities ρ = 0.15 fm -3 , slightly around the saturation density for nuclear matter ρ 0 = 0.16 fm -3 . The direct URCA processes for nucleons are forbidden for densities below ρ = 0.5 fm -3 , however the modified URCA processes with muons (n where N is a nucleon, result in neutrino emissivities comparable to those from (n + N → p + N + e + ν e , p + N + e → n + N + ν e ). This opens up for further possibilities to explain the rapid cooling of neutrons stars. Superconducting protons reduce however these emissivities at densities below 0.4 fm -3 .

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

AimAlthough species distribution models (SDMs) traditionally link species occurrences to free‐air temperature data at coarse spatio‐temporal resolution, the distribution of organisms might instead be driven by temperatures more proximal to their habitats. Several solutions are currently available, such as downscaled or interpolated coarse‐grained free‐air temperatures, satellite‐measured land surface temperatures (LST) or in‐situ‐measured soil temperatures. A comprehensive comparison of temperature data sources and their performance in SDMs is, however, currently lacking.LocationNorthern Scandinavia.Time period1970–2017.Major taxa studiedHigher plants.MethodsWe evaluated different sources of temperature data (WorldClim, CHELSA, MODIS, E‐OBS, topoclimate and soil temperature from miniature data loggers), differing in spatial resolution (from 1″ to 0.1°), measurement focus (free‐air, ground‐surface or soil temperature) and temporal extent (year‐long versus long‐term averages), and use...

For presentation at the 15th Conference on Weather Analysis and Forecasting Norfolk, VA 8/19-23/96. Los Afamos National Laboratory. an affirmative action/equaf opportunity employer, is operated by the University of California for the US. Department of Energy under contract W-7405-ENG-36. By acceptance of this article. the publisher recognizes that the US. Governmem retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or to allow others to do so. for US. Government purposes. The Los Alamos National Laboratory requests that the publisher identify this article as work performed under the auspices of the US. Department of Energy.

The empirical orthogonal function decomposition is used to analyze time records of AVHRR sea surface temperature observations of the western North Atlantic from 32.9Њ to 43.6ЊN, 62.7Њ to 76.3ЊW. A manually declouded dataset covering the spring of 1985 is analyzed. The majority (80%) of the variance about the mean is accounted for by an empirical eigenfunction, which is identified with seasonal warming. This eigenfunction shows that the shelf water, excluding Georges Bank, warms the most rapidly; the surface water of the Gulf of Maine warms a little less rapidly and the Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea surface water warm the least rapidly. The SST of the Gulf Stream is also shown to behave more like that at 30ЊN than like Sargasso Sea water immediately to its south (ϳ35ЊN). The second EOF is found to be a small correction to the general warming rate described by the first EOF. The third and fourth EOFs are determined primarily by meander propagation. Observations with partial cloud cover from the period 1985 to 1991 are also analyzed. Again, the dominant effect is identified as seasonal warming.

The purpose of this study is to present a satellite-derived sea surface temperature (SST) climatology based on Pathfinder Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data and to evaluate it and several other climatologies for their usefulness in the determination of SST trends. The method of evaluation uses two longterm observational collections of in situ SST measurements: the 1994 World Ocean Atlas (WOA94) and the Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set (COADS). Each of the SST climatologies being evaluated is subtracted from each raw SST observation in WOA94 and COADS to produce several separate long-term anomaly datasets. The anomaly dataset with the smallest standard deviation is assumed to identify the climatology best able to represent the spatial and seasonal SST variability and therefore be most capable of reducing the uncertainty in SST trend determinations. The satellite SST climatology was created at a resolution of 9.28 km using both day and night satellite fields generated with the version 4 AVHRR Pathfinder algorithm and cloud-masking procedures, plus an erosion filter that provides additional cloud masking in the vicinity of cloud edges. Using the statistical comparison method, the performance of this ''Pathfinder ϩ erosion'' climatology is compared with the performances of the WOA94 1Њ in situ climatology, the Reynolds satellite and in situ blended 1Њ analysis, version 2.2 of the blended 1Њ Global Sea-Ice and Sea Surface Temperature (GISST) climatology, and the in situ 5Њ Global Ocean Surface Temperature Atlas (GOSTA). The standard deviation of the anomalies produced using the raw WOA94 in situ observations and the reference SST climatologies indicate that the 9.28-km Pathfinder ϩ erosion climatology is more representative of spatial and seasonal SST variability than the traditional in situ and blended SST climatologies. For the anomalies created from the raw COADS observations, the Pathfinder ϩ erosion climatology is also found to minimize variance more than the other climatologies. In both cases, the 5Њ GOSTA climatology exhibits the largest anomaly standard deviations. Regional characteristics of the climatologies are also examined by binning the anomalies by climatological temperature classes and latitudinal bands. Generally, the Pathfinder ϩ erosion climatology yields lower anomaly variances in the mid-and high latitudes and the Southern Hemisphere, but larger variances than the 1Њ climatologies in the warm, Northern Hemisphere low-latitude regions.