Impacts Of Climatic Change On Agriculture

With the explosive growth in the world’s population which has little or no corresponding rise in the food production, food insecurity has become eminent, and hence, the need to seek for opportunities to increase food production in order to cater for this population is paramount. The second goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (i.e., ending hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture) set by the United Nations (UN) for the year 2030 clearly acknowledged this fact. Improving food production cannot be achieved using the obsolete conventional methods of agriculture by our farmers; hence, this study focuses on developing a model for predicting climatic conditions with a view to reducing their negative impact, and boosting the yield of crop. Temperature, wind, humidity and rainfall were considered as the effect of these factors is more devastating in Nigeria as compared to sun light which is always in abundance. We implemented ...

Optimal utilization of sago plants can provide large incomes to farm households. Generally in Indonesia sago is only used as a staple food for the daily life of the family as a companion to rice. However, some region in Indonesia uses sago as the main staple food source, such as in Maluku, Papua, parts of Sulawesi such as East Kolaka. The purpose of this study is to examine in depth the production and productivity of sago plants in the East Kolaka Regency. The study was conducted in the East Kolaka Regency of Southeast Sulawesi Province in 2018. The respondents of this study were 203 sago farmers. The study uses a quantitative approach with a combination of survey methods with quantitative and qualitative descriptive data analysis. The results showed that sago production in East Kalimantan in each year ranged from 119 sacks/ year - 363 sacks/ year or equivalent to 2,161 kg / yr-6,606 kg /yr. The highest average sago starch production is in the Poniponiki village, which is 6,606 kg /yr. While the lowest production is in the Ladongi village, 2,161 kg/ yr. The highest productivity was found in Alaaha village, which was 7.7 tons /ha/ yr while the lowest productivity was 2.5 tons /ha/ yr in Ladongi village. Sago plant productivity in East Kalimantan shows quite good productivity for the condition of sago cultivation that is still extractive tautology. This shows that when sago plantations are used in the improvement of sago plant technology in East Kalimantan, they will provide productivity far higher than current production.

This paper focuses on the present status and prospects of organic farming in India. India is endowed with various types of naturally available organic form of nutrients in different parts of the country and it will help for organic cultivation of crops substantially.

Reclaiming ancient Middle Eastern spiritual-pharmacopeias, agricultural and architectural environmental engineering practices (such as tree amber for wounds or the Medieval Iraqi aquifers—qanats—still in practice today) can be one resolution for systemic oppressions inherent in our triple pandemic of ethnic cleansing/racism, climate crisis, and Covid-19. While encouraging individuals and communities to collectively resist industrialized convenience-culture and its self-destructive consequences, this presentation offers behavioral and infrastructural design shifts that embody Islamic wisdom/spiritual intelligence. In the tradition of hakawatis (Arab storytellers), I offer this tapestry as a strategy to ignite social justice
dialogue, ecological consciousness, and collective action. I contend that the alternative to industrial-waste consumer-convenience culture is not inconvenience, nor sacrifice. I suggest we redefine “convenience” by following principles found in Islamic texts and laws that can be antidotes to our consumer-waste culture. I ask: How can we transform habitual behaviors of entitlement and obsessive accumulation, so that we embody the ways we are all interconnected as a model and resource for
compassionate living? How can citizen-activists exemplify symbiotic solutions as we transition from our Anthropogenic, petroleum-pharmaceutical-addicted cyber-culture to a biocentric Commons—one
that inspires, educates, and mobilizes peoples of diverse cultural backgrounds? How can we hold ourselves and corporations accountable to toxic production / consumption / disposal habits that poison
life on earth? I explore principles found in ancient Islamic texts and laws as antidotes to our consumer-waste culture: water politics/infrastructure, architectural heating/cooling, the sacred embodied in bioregional agricultural systems, medico-magical rituals, and zero-waste/creative-waste living. Additionally, Islamic oral traditions that incorporate the ambiguity, contradiction, and the voice of the trickster are central to uprooting the intersections of our triple pandemic. Transformation and shifting identities are integral to how understanding how we can proactively engage with the sacred and the world around us.

Faced by multiple stressors such as climate variability, policy inconsistency and economic globalization among others, smallholders in developing countries are constantly seeking ways to adapt and reduce the vulnerability of their farming systems. Indigenous knowledge systems have provided the basis for efficient and cost effective resource management for many centuries. In this study of two fadama communities in Northern Nigeria, findings reveal the significant role and value indigenous knowledge in improving the resilience and adaptive capacity of fadama agricultural systems especially in light of increasing pressures, both natural and man-made. These farmers provide an excellent example of how local knowledge can contribute in the quest for sustainable systems through the promotion of adaptive strategies for resource management.

With the explosive growth in the world's population which has little or no corresponding rise in the food production, food insecurity has become eminent, and hence, the need to seek for opportunities to increase food production in order to cater for this population is paramount. The second goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (i.e., ending hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture) set by the United Nations (UN) for the year 2030 clearly acknowledged this fact. Improving food production cannot be achieved using the obsolete conventional methods of agriculture by our farmers; hence, this study focuses on developing a model for predicting climatic conditions with a view to reducing their negative impact, and boosting the yield of crop. Temperature, wind, humidity and rainfall were considered as the effect of these factors is more devastating in Nigeria as compared to sun light which is always in abundance. We implemen...

Although Nepal's contribution to green house gas emission is negligible, the negative impacts of climate change induced effects has been clearly noticed like increasing rainfall intensity with decreasing frequency, increasing incidence of pest and diseases. This scientific paper is review paper and is presented with all objectives of making public, government and international community aware on effect of climate change in agricultural production and livelihood of mid hills people. Majority of the Nepalese population are subsistence farmer in rural parts of Nepal and has low land holding capacity. The rise in temperature, which is felt by indigenous people of mid hills, has been declining the yield of major staple crops like rice, wheat, maize and millet. Many local varieties are under serious threat of extinction. The declining trends of river discharge affected agriculture with inadequate water supply for irrigation.  More erratic rain has caused landslides and debris flow which disturbed the irrigation channel and moreover there was no rain in winter. Study showed that drought adversely affected the winter crop by 70% loss. This problem is becoming severe in foothills of Churiya and the middle hills. Cropping pattern of the zone shifted through the migration of crops to the higher altitude and production has been decreased due to temperature rise. The Terai crop varieties are performing better in mid hills. Study shows that climate change can be expected to threaten food production leading to hunger, poverty and malnutrition. It is predicted that the level of vulnerability will be higher in high altitude as compared to the lower altitude. The agricultural sector is not only vulnerable to climate change but has also stressed with problem of rural male exodus, low return which adversely affect livelihood of mid hills people. In Nepalese agriculture, time has come to put efforts on building climate resilience sustainable farming practices. The concerned authorities should find possible ways of adaptive measures to built climate change responsive practices for sustainable food production.

يهدف المقال إلى دراسة الصعوبات والمعيقات التي تواجه مختلف الأنشطة الفلاحية بالمجالات البورية المتسمة أصلا بالهشاشة على المستوى الطبيعي والسوسيو-اقتصادي. من جهة، سيتم التطرق إلى التغايرية المجالية الزمنية للتساقطات المطرية وندرتها وتركزها، باعتبارها تدخل ضمن الاكراهات المناخية، ومدى تأثيرها الكبير على المردودية الزراعية، وبالتالي الحد من تحقيق تنمية محلية مستدامة بهذه المجالات.
ومن جهة أخرى، سيتم تناول مختلف الآليات والاستراتيجيات التي تبناها الفلاحون بهذه المجالات للتكيف واحتواء مختلف هذه الاكراهات الطبيعية – المناخية، بهدف الحد من آثارها السلبية وتحسين وضعيتهم الاجتماعية والاقتصادية.

Una plaga potencial por efectos del cambio climático La región andina de Colombia es considerada como uno de los ecosistemas más vulnerables al cambio climático. Un aumento proyectado en la temperatura media anual del aire para el territorio nacional entre 1 y 2°C, una variación en la precipitación del 15% y el aumento en las concentraciones de CO 2 , pueden ocasionar cambios de adaptación en las poblaciones de los insectos entre los diferentes rangos altitudinales, como son los cambios en el comportamiento con sus hospedantes, alteraciones y desfases en la sincronización de períodos de actividad de insectos huésped e insectos parasitoides, y afectar el crecimiento y abundancia, la supervivencia, las tasas de alimentación y ciclos de vida de los insectos herbívoros .

Although some production and marketing restrictions are barely defined, Dera area is a potential teff producer in Ethiopia’s Southern Gondar zone. The study analysed teff production, focusing on factors that affect the volume of teff sold, based on data collected from household surveys, respondent interviews, and focus group discussions. Both descriptive and econometric analyses were used. The results show that teff grown in the study area is mixed, practised by 34.5% of households, followed by red teff (32.16%) with commonly used storage facilities such as Gota, Gotera, and Sack. In terms of marketing, the results show that 57.7% of teff produced in the 2019 sowing season was delivered to the market through rural retailers, wholesalers, and directly from producers to consumers. The result of the ordinary least squares estimates of the multiple linear regression model indicates the gender of the head of household, the experience of the head of household, the amount of teff produced,...

This chapter is one of the few publications, which compare two food crises: the Irish famine of 1845-1851 and the Finnish famine of 1866- 1868. It examines their similarities and differences. Both we attributed to natural shocks, which were, however, quite different – potato blight and summer frost respectively.

La prise de conscience sur les impacts environnementaux et sociaux que cause la course effrénée vers l’accumulation du capital physique, est désormais notoire dans le concert des nations. Les avis sont de plus en plus unanimes. La nécessité de tenir compte de la dimension humaine et environnementale dans la constitution de la richesse d’une nation est maintenant indéniable. Pourtant, ni le PIB et ses mesures de revenu dérivées n’ont  permis  de saisir correctement ces enjeux liés à la qualité et à la soutenabilité des modes de vie des personnes et des sociétés. On ne peut, en effet, considérer que le revenu véritable d’un pays s’accroît si ses ressources naturelles s’épuisent dans une proportion que ne peuvent compenser les investissements en capital physique. Il en va de même si les connaissances et les capacités de sa population diminuent .
Par conséquent, il importe de trouver un indicateur qui exprime simultanément pour un pays donné et à l’issue d’un cycle de production, la variation du capital physique, humain et naturel. C’est en ce sens que l’épargne véritable ou Epargne Nette Ajustée (ENA) trouve toute sa raison d’être.

Among different production factors, planting methods produce significant effects not only on paddy yield and grain quality of rice but also on soil health and productivity. In present experiment, six planting methods including farmer conventional transplanting, mechanized transplanting, dry direct seeding in lines and broadcasting, dry direct seeding on raised beds by machine and wet direct seeding (broadcasting of pre-germinated seed in puddled soil) were tested to evaluate their response for yield and quality traits as well as cost-benefit ratio. The experiment was planned according to randomized complete block design RCBD) with four replications and a plot size of 18 m x 27 m. Data were collected on number of plants m -2 , plant height, productive panicles m -2 , grains panicle -1

The amount of energy that comes from the sun to the earth is measured with a solar constant. Which has a value of 1364w/ m², this energy is the radiation emission value of the sun for the area of a sphere 4πr², at the distance of an area of a sphere 4πr² of an astronomical unit, as the earth only receives sunlight the area of a circle πr², then 4 parts of that energy are not reaching the earth, so the value of the constant is divided by four, to know how much energy emitted from the sun enters the earth, but this work shows that the value of the solar constant does not change when we measure the energy emitted by the sun, in an area of the solar circle (πr²), between the value of the area of a circle (πr²), of an astronomical unit, which is the area that looks to the earth, so the division of the solar constant to know how much energy enters the earth in the area of a circle, should not be divided by 4, as is currently done.

The subject of environmental economics is at the forefront of the green debate: the environment can no longer be viewed as an entity separate from the economy. Environmental degradation is of many types and have many consequences. To address this challenge a number of studies have been conducted in both developing and developed countries applying different methods to capture health benefits from improved environmental quality. Minimizing exposure to environmental risk factors by enhancing air quality and access to improved sources of drinking and bathing water, sanitation and clean energy is found to be associated with significant health benefits and can contribute significantly to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals of environmental sustainability, health and development. In this paper, I describe the national and global causes and consequences of environmental degradation and social injustice.

"Recent discoveries of megadroughts, severe periods of drought lasting decades or centuries, during the course of the Holocene have revolutionized our understanding of modern climate history. Through advances in paleoclimatology, researchers have identified these periods of climate change by analyzing high resolution proxy data derived from lake sediment cores, marine cores, glacial cores, speleothem cores, and tree rings. Evidence that megadroughts occurred with frequency and abruptly over the last 12,000 years, a time span long assumed to be stable compared to earlier glacial periods, has also altered our understanding of societies’ trajectories. The fact that severe, multi-decadal or century-scale droughts coincided with societal collapses well known to archaeologists has challenged established multi-causal analyses of these events. Megadroughts, impossible to predict and impossible to withstand, may have caused political collapse, regional abandonment, and habitat tracking to still-productive regions. The nine megadrought and societal collapse events presented in this volume extend from the foraging-to-agriculture transition at the dawn of the Holocene in West Asia to the fifteenth-century AD collapse of the Khmer Empire in Angkor (Cambodia). Inevitably, this collection of essays also raises challenges to causal analyses of societal collapse and for future  paleoclimatic and archaeological research."

(english abstract below) Συνεχίζοντας την παρουσίαση της, υπό μελέτη, μονάδας αγροτουριστικού κάμπινγκ πολυτελείας ολιστικά αειφόρου σχεδίασης εντός ελαιώνα στην Πολυρρήνια Κισσάμου στο παρόν άρθρο αναλύεται το γεωργικό σκέλος αυτής, το σκέλος της γεωργική παραγωγής. Αρχικά δίνεται με λίγα λόγια ο ορισμός του αγροτουρισμού γενικά και ακολουθούν κάποια ενδεικτικά θέματα σχετικά με το αγροτουριστικό κάμπινγκ πολυτελείας και πως επιδρούν σε αυτό και στη γεωργία η κλιματική αλλαγή και η ενεργειακή μετάβαση. Προτάσεις και σκέψεις για τα στοιχεία από τα οποία θα αποτελείται το γεωργικό σκέλος της μονάδας καθώς και τις γεωργικές μεθόδους που θα (ή που μπορούν να) υιοθετηθούν παρατίθενται σε ένα πρώτο στάδιο κατά το οποίο έγινε διερεύνηση και καταγραφή (όπως είναι αυτονόητο αυτό δεν σημαίνει πως δε θα χρειαστεί περαιτέρω ειδικευμένη γεωπονική διερεύνηση):  μέθοδοι προσαρμογής της ελαιοκαλλιέργειας στην κλιματική αλλαγή και στην κατάργηση των φυτοφαρμάκων, άρδευση με επεξεργασμένα γκρίζα νερά βάσει συστήματος με πήλινα πιθάρια εντός του εδάφους, γεωυφάσματα που αρδεύουν και αερίζουν τα φυτά και τα δέντρα, ενεργοί μικροοργανισμοί, ευφυής γεωργία (δορυφόροι, drone, απομακρυσμένος έλεγχος), γεωργία ελεγχόμενου περιβάλλοντος με ειδική ξεχωριστή αναφορά στα θερμοκήπια, ηλιακά ξηραντήρια, ρομποτικός αγρότης, φωτοβολταικά πανέλα με αυτοκόλλητη επικάλυψη, φωτοβολταική κληματαριά, ηλιακή υποβοήθηση ψύξης, συσκευασία/τυποποίηση των παραγόμενων γεωργικών προιόντων και διαδικτυακή προώθηση και πωλήσεις.  Ο μεγάλος αριθμός στοιχείων που παρατίθενται προσφέρει και αντίστοιχα μεγάλο αριθμό πιθανών επιλογών.
Το πιο αξιοσημείωτο συμπέρασμα που προκύπτει τελικά από την μελέτη: οι μέθοδοι προσαρμογής της ελαιοκαλλιέργειας στην κλιματική αλλαγή, η βιολογική ελαιοκαλλιέργεια και η ανάπτυξη φωτοβολταικών εντός ελαιώνων αποτελούν ένα δυναμικό ενάρετο κύκλο στοιχείων που μπορούν να αλληλεπιδρούν θετικά μεταξύ τους και το αγροτουριστικό κάμπινγκ πολυτελείας πέραν της διαφοροποίησης του αγροτικού εισοδήματος μπορεί να λειτουργήσει και ως καταλύτης στην περαιτέρω διερεύνηση και προώθησή τους και στην εκμετάλλευση των πολυάριθμων συνεργειών που προκύπτουν (παράγραφος 3).
Η, υπό μελέτη, αγροτουριστική μονάδα κάμπινγκ πολυτελείας εντός ημιορεινού ελαιώνα στην Πολυρρήνια Χανίων στο σύνολό της χάρη στις σημαντικές  συνέργειες που παρουσιάζονται μπορεί να δικαιώσει τον χαρακτηρισμό του σύνθετου τουριστικού-κτηνοτροφικού-γεωργικού αναπτυξιακού “κυττάρου” στα πλαίσια της σύγχρονης εποχής, εποχή η οποία φέρνει την μεγάλη επέκταση των ανανεώσιμων πηγών ενέργειας και την 4η Βιομηχανική Επανάσταση.
Επόμενη (και τελευταία ουσιαστικά) παρουσίαση: το σκέλος που αφορά τις προτάσεις ολιστικά αειφόρου σχεδίασης της μονάδας.

TITLE: The agricultural sector of the, under study, holistic sustainable, off grid agri-glamping unit inside an olive grove in Polyrrinia Crete.

Continuing the presentation of the, under study, holistic sustainable off grid agri-glamping unit inside an olive grove in Polyrrinia Kissamos, this article analyzes and discusses the agricultural production sector.
First of all, the definition of agrotourism in general is given followed by some indicative issues regarding  agriglamping as well as about how climate change and energy transition affect both agriculture and agri-glamping.
Proposals and thoughts on the basic elements of the agricultural sector of the agriglamping unit as well as the agricultural methods that will be (or can be) adopted are listed at a first stage during which research and recordings have been done (it is obvious that this does not mean that there will be no need for further specialized research and assessment by agronomists): methods of adaptation of olive cultivation to climate change and abolition of pesticides, irrigation with treated gray water on a system with underground clay pints, geotextiles that irrigate and aerate plants and trees, active micro-organisms, smart farming (satellites, drone, IoT remote control), controlled environment agriculture with special reference to greenhouses, solar drying units, robotic farmer, photovoltaic panels coated with self-adhesive colored film, solar pv vine, solar aid for refrigeration, standardization and packing of the unit’s  agricultural products and internet promotion and sales.
The large number of methods and products listed offers an equally large number of possible choices for whoever designs a unit of that kind.
The most notable and interesting conclusion that emerges from the study: methods of adaptation of olive cultivations to climate change, organic olive cultivation and photovoltaics inside olive groves constitute a dynamic virtuous circle of elements that can interact positively with each other and agriglamping except offering diversification of rural incomes can also act as a catalyst in further research, promotion and developing as well as a catalyst in the exploitation of various synergies.
An agriglamping unit within a semi-mountainous olive grove in Polyrrinia Crete as a whole, due to the significant synergies presented, can justify the characterization of a complex tourist, farming and livestock developmental "cell" in the context of the modern era, ie the large expansion of renewable energy sources and the 4th Industrial Revolution. Next (substantially last) publication: proposals for the holistic sustainable and socially responsible character of the, under study,  unit.

The quantity of greenhouse gases in Egypt about 197 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2014, and that there is the possibility of losing what between 12%, 15%) of the area of high-quality agricultural land in production in the delta region will lose as a result of sinking or salinity with sea level rise by about half a meter away, the north coast of Egypt (and more areas of Egypt declined) we find that the areas that must be taken into account, covering an area of about 10% -15%) of the delta, and it is expected that climate change will have a negative impact on the productivity of field crops. As well as the proportion of self-sufficiency, and economic effects of these changes in 2030 expect two scenarios: the first in the case of the probability of not sinking any parts of the delta (the optimistic scenario), and the second is in the case of potential sank 15% of Delta lands, with assumption of a steady crop intensification at 1.99, it is expected in the case of potential sank 15% of Delta land by 2030, the area under cultivation will be reduced by approximately 0.9 million acres, amend about 7.56% of the cultivated area in the case of the sinking parts of the delta, and thus would be reduced crop area of about 1.406 million acres, drawn about by 6.25% of the crop area in the case of the sinking parts of the delta, as in the case of expected water resources available at about 71.52 billion cubic meters, the available water resources will be reduced by approximately 17.88 billion cubic meters, equivalent to 20% of the available water resources in the case of the sinking parts of the delta, and in the case of expected resources available by about 80.4 billion cubic meters, will decline by about 9 billion cubic meters, equivalent to about 10.07% of the available water resources in the case of the sinking parts of the delta, and thus is expected in 2030 that effect climate changes on the area cultivated and crop area water resources.

This study was conducted to investigate the problems of teaching agriculture in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area, Rivers State. A total of two hundred and fifty (250) teachers consisting of 160 males (60%) and 90 females (40%) were randomly selected from all secondary schools both public and private in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area in Rivers state The research instrument used for the data collection was questionnaire which was developed by the researcher in two different forms, one for the Agricultural Science students and the other for the Agricultural science teachers. Research findings from the study indicated that the major challenges facing the teaching and learning of Agricultural Science include frequent use of lecture method in teaching, large class size and poor remuneration of teachers. Others include inadequate teaching and learning materials and their availability, difficulty in planning field trips as well as laziness and truancy on the part of teachers. However, it must be emphasized that motivational factors such as one's own interest, having a role model, future ambitions and the supply of adequate textbooks positively affect the teaching and learning of Agricultural Science in Public Senior High Schools in the Metropolis. The study recommends that parents must be educated to understand the important role and prospects the learning of Agricultural Science contributes to the development of a country. Also the Government, Parent Teacher Association (PTA) and other stakeholders must help to improve the service of Agricultural Science Teachers.

This study presents a largely indicator-based assessment of past and projected climate change, impacts and the associated vulnerabilities of and risks to ecosystems, agriculture, water recourses, forestry, bioclimatic conditions, human health and society in the RM, based on a wide range of observations and different model simulations. It identifies regions that are experiencing particularly severe climate change impacts. The principal sources of uncertainty for the indicators and modelling results are discussed and, where appropriate, reflected in the assessments.
The indicators included in this study are based on many different information sources. As a result, they cover different past and future time periods, and information is presented at different levels of regional aggregation. This report compiles information from a wide variety of data and information sources. It builds on, among others, on the recommendations of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, but a substantial amount of information that became available afterwards has also been included.While this study is not meant to be a comprehensive overview of all aspects of climate change impact on the RM’s economy it does reflect the breadth and depth of researches that had been done in the RM to date, and it provides a link between a global phenomenon and the sectors development issues facing the country. The researches and analysis in this study indicates that, while climate change is likely to pose serious threats to development in the RM, it also has the potential to bring opportunities.

This study concerns with climate resource management to improve open-field production of tomato in tropical lowlands of Malaysia. The objective was to use a model based approach for identifying optimum combination of growing season and location that is most adapted with different reference borders of temperature, relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit. Data were continuously collected every 60 seconds and for 12 months (January to December, 2014), from two major crop production sites in Seremban and Kota Kinabalu, respectively located in East and West of Malaysia. Interactions between simulated environment and growth responses of tomato were determined by means of an adaptability factor model for the purpose of comparing two locations at different months of year. Results of hypotheses testing that in each location, raw data does not vary with different months were rejected at any significant level, concluding that daily-averaged temperature, relative humidity and vapor pressur...

The operationalization of cocoa mass spraying program by the government which has the aim of fighting against pests and diseases in Ghanaians‟ cocoa farms would not just be adequate but rather uncovering the impact of the program on cocoa production is worth considering. It is therefore important to find out the impact of the program in the lives of farmers, chief farmers, and Municipal Coordinator for CODAPEC in Sefwi Wiawso Municipality of Western North Region. However, the study reviewed pieces of literature to find more information and gaps in the existing body of knowledge. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select cocoa-growing communities benefiting from the program and farmers respectively. Primary and secondary data were the sources of data for the study. Interview and questionnaire were the tools for data gathering. The study involved 100 farmers, 6 chief farmers and one Municipal Coordinator for CODAPEC as its respondents. Descriptive statistics tools such as frequency and percentage distribution tables were used to analyze data through the aid of Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) computer software. One of the major findings of the study demonstrated that accessibility of the program had been troubled by bribery, favouritism, to whom you know, quarrel, spraying team not ready and serious, spraying team demanding money, insufficient supply of pesticides, inadequate supply of fuel for spraying had made it inaccessible to majority of farmers in the study areas. Another major finding was that four times spraying had been stressed by CODAPEC yearly. Other findings were that sprayings were done between July and November; these had brought an increasing rate in cocoa outputs at the study areas. Based on the finding it was recommended that; government through CODAPEC should supply sufficient pesticides and adequate fuel for spraying. Bribery, favoritism, and to whom you know concepts should be prohibited and discouraged from the era of the spraying program and individuals who are caught in such actions should be prosecuted and jailed if the law demands.

Between the 13th and 11th centuries BCE, most Greek Bronze-Age Palatial centers were destroyed and/or abandoned. The following centuries were typified by low population levels. Data from oxygen-isotope speleothems, stable carbon isotopes, alkenone-derived sea surface temperatures, and changes in warm species dinocysts and formanifera in the Mediterranean indicate that the Early Iron Age was more arid than the preceding Bronze Age. A sharp increase in Northern Hemisphere temperatures preceded the collapse of Palatial centers, a sharp decrease occurred during their abandonment. Mediterranean Sea surface temperatures cooled rapidly during the Late Bronze Age, limiting freshwater flux into the atmosphere and thus reducing precipitation over land. These climatic changes could have affected Palatial centers that were dependent upon high levels of agricultural productivity. Declines in agricultural production would have made higher-density populations in Palatial centers unsustainable. The ‘Greek Dark Ages’ that followed occurred during prolonged arid conditions that lasted until the Roman Warm Period.

Indeed, the engine industries have seen a tremendous growth in the research and development of new-age technologies over the past ten years or so. Even though a huge database is now available on present-day engine technologies, a skillful presentation of those data is a demanding task. At this count, an endeavor has been made here to brief the pros and cons of present-day engine technologies in an elusive manner. In a nut–shell, this article provides an extensive review of the primary principles that preside over the internal combustion engines design and operation, as well as a simplifying framework of new-age engine technologies has been organized and summarized in an elegant way to contribute to this pragmatic field.

One of the major issues facing humankind is global food security. A changing climate, coupled with a heightened consumer awareness of how food is produced and legislative changes governing the usage of agrichemicals for improving plant health and yield, means that alternative, more integrated and sustainable approaches are needed for crop management practices. To this end, there is increasing recognition of the value of the role of microbial inoculants in agriculture. The focus of this review is to understand how plant-growth-promoting bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can play a part in improving crop yield by promoting the health status of the plant through the sequestration of various nutrients and in the control of plant diseases.

Cuaca adalah kondisi sesaat dari fisika amosfer. Jadi, unsur‐unsur ikli-m dan cuaca adalah sama. Cuaca adalah keadaan atmosfer pada suatu saat (dalam jangka waktu yang pendek) dan pada area yang sempit. Sedangkan iklim adalah sintesis atau kesimpulan dari perubahan nilai unsur-unsur cuaca (hari demi hari dan bulan demi bulan) dalam jangka panjang di suatu tempat atau pada suatu wilayah. Hal tersebut berarti bahwa cuaca merupakan bagian dari iklim. Karakteristik iklim pada permukaan bumi akan berbeda dari tempat ke tempat begitu pula dengan cuaca.
Tiap tanaman membutuhkan keadaan cuaca dan iklim tertentu untuk dapat tumbuh berkembang dengan baik sehingga dapat mencapai produksi secara maksimal. Suhu, kelembapan udara, angin, curah hujan, radiasi surya dan lain-lain merupakan unsur pengendali iklim yang berpengaruh terhadap pertumbuhan dan perkembangan tanaman. Pengaruh cuaca dan iklim tidak hanya berpengaruh ketika proses produksi tanaman saja, namun pengaruhnya meluas hingga mencapai proses panen dan pasca panen.
Pengetahuan mengenai iklim dan unsur-unsur cuaca diharapkan dapat mengetahui, menciptakan dan mengendalikan kondisi lingkungan yang optimum bagi pertumbuhan dan perkembangan tanaman. Hal tersebut merupakan sebuah upaya manusi dalam memodifikasi iklim mikro untuk tanaman agar produksinya lebih maksimal. Pengetahuan mengenai iklim dan cuaca juga diharapkan dapat menjadi acuan dalam usaha perencanaan dan pengembangan pertanian.

The emissions of greenhouse gasses in Egypt are about 0.58% of the total emissions of the world in the year 2015, although Egypt is one of the countries most affected by the impacts of climate change. By assessment and analysis of the expected economic impacts of climate change by the year 2030, the Egyptian cultivated area will be reduced to about 0.949 million acres, equal to about 8.22% of the Egyptian cultivated area compared with the case of no sinking part of the Delta land, thus reducing crop area in Egypt to about 1.406 million acres, approximately to about 6.25% of crop area compared with the case of no sinking part of the Delta land, in addition to surplus in the Egyptian balance water to about 2.48 billion m 3. In this case value of the Egyptian agriculture production will decrease by about 6.19 billion dollars, equal to about 6.19% compared with presumably no sinking of the Delta land. In the case of sinking 15% of Delta lands, with the change of the productivity and water consumption of most crops, the result will be a reduction in the cultivated area to about 0.94 million acres. In addition to decreasing the Egyptian crop area to about 1.39 million acres, with a deficit in the Egyptian balance water to about 4.74 billion m 3 compared to the case of no sinking part of the Delta land, the cultivated area will decrease to about 8.17%, and the crop area will decrease 6.18%. Also, the value of the Egyptian agriculture production will decrease by about 12.51%. While compared to sinking part of the Delta land to about 15% of the total Delta area without the other impacts of climate change, the cultivated area will increase by about 0.06%; the crop area will increase by about 0.08%; also, the value of the Egyptian agriculture production will decrease by about 5.57%.

The aim of this paper is to overview the effects of climate change on the growth of field crop and their productivity in the scenario of food security. This overview describes the effects of several environmental stresses such as temperature, salinity, drought and elevated CO2, which greatly influence the crop production through climatic variability. Global warming and climate change have severe impacts on agricultural crops, leading towards food security. High temperature cause pollen sterility, lower CO 2 assimilation, dehydration of tissues, reduction in pollen germination, pollen tube length, seed setting, grain size, silique, and seed production of crops. Low temperature affects germination rate, emergence percentage, stem length and root growth, chlorophyll contents, Fv/Fm ratio and yield in field crops. Cold stress causes solidification of membranes, loss of membrane functions and impaired with reproductive stage development leads to yield loss in plants. Drought stress has a significant influence on the stomatal exchange, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, vegetative growth, branches per plant, plant height, panicle initiation, flowering, pollen anthesis, pollination and accumulation of dry matter resulting in flower abortion, grain abscission and ultimately reduced seed yield and seed oil content. Salt stress affects germination, crop emergence, seedling growth, the rate of water uptake and significantly reduces the leaf number, leaf enlargement rate, root and shoot dry matter, root-shoot ratio, root growth rate, total dry matter in plants. Elevated concentrations of CO 2 results in increased growth rate, respiration, photosynthetic activity, biomass production, water use efficiency along with high yield and decreased in transpiration process. Identifying suitable screening indices and quantifiable traits would facilitate the crop improvement process under such environmental stresses and development of crop cultivars resilient to climate change. There is a dire need to combat the current scenario of climate change by identifying suitable genotypes and management practices to sustain the crop productivity.

Rural households play an active role in reorganizing their livelihood strategies to respond to external stresses and shocks. What is unclear is the extent to which rural households can remain resilient in the face of continued external stresses and how policy actions at larger scales can more effectively encourage rural food and livelihood sustainability. Economic and ecological stresses and shocks have negatively impacted livelihood security and wider economic stability in Belize. This has increased the number of people below the poverty line to 41.3 percent, who remain disproportionately located in rural areas. With a high degree of import dependency, global food price surges have resulted in direct pass through effects on domestic prices, creating food price inflation of up to 22.8 percent between 2006 and 2009. Within this context, this study assesses the state of livelihood security in a village of the Cayo district by assessing the quality of household capital assets, including human, financial, natural and social capital. Semi-structured face- to-face interviews were conducted in 2012 using a random sample of 64 households. Participant observation, key-informant interviews, the use of secondary sources and extra- local interviews with government officials were also employed to gain deeper insight into the complexity of the rural environment and institutional policies related to food security and sustainable agricultural development.

          Results show high levels of livelihood diversification among both grain farmers and non-farming households. No significant difference existed between total household median incomes. However, the median income of non-grain male household heads is significantly greater than that of grain farmer male householders (U = 1393, n1 = 43, n2 = 16, p < .05). Part-time farming households maintained the highest number of livelihood strategies compared to non-grain households, with a median of 4 to 3 respectively (U = 506, n1 = 11, n2 = 48, p < .0005). Compared to non-farmers, part-time farmers are disproportionately engaged in day labor as a primary income strategy, where pay is lower and work is less reliable (Chi = 57, df = 1, p < .01). Human capital is low among both household types, with 65 percent of non-farming male householders receiving no education above the primary school level, while all grain farmers received no education above the primary school level (Chi = 59, df = 1, p < .01). Domestic and foreign remittances did not impact the majority of
participants, as only 28 percent reported they received, or would receive, some amount of extra-household monetary support. Yet, the median value of out-country remittances was significantly greater for non-farmers compared to grain farmers (U = 21.00, n1 = 4, n2 = 3, p < .05). Despite these strategies, financial capital remains constrained, as over 75% of households are unable to save money, and the large majority of working females worked out of necessity. In addition, nearly two thirds of households have reduced meal size in recent years, with no significant difference between household types.

          Nearly three quarters of all householders valued home gardens as a mode to adding diversity to the diet and improving health or reducing purchasing costs. Among farmers, 94 percent stated that their farms provided their family with food, where 62.5 percent indicated risk management, specifically, as their reason for farming. This proportion rises to 83.3 percent when looking at local (white) corn producers exclusively. When asked if farming has become more difficult, less difficult, or the same compared to the past, 62.5 percent of grain farmers stated that agriculture in Belize has become more difficult (Chi = 6.5, df = 2, p < .05). Biophysical constraints among both household types include vulnerability to waterlogging and drought, soil fertility and pest problems. Input costs are also of concern, while grain farmers faced additional transaction risk. Furthermore, land tenure insecurity is widespread. To compound the problem, social capital is also weak given disillusionment with formal organizing, where exclusionary policies by the local cooperative further restrict access to relevant low-cost and low-input technologies. Expanding access to sustainable technologies through participatory research and extension is recommended. However, greater access to technology alone is insufficient for sustaining intensification that can ensure resilient food and livelihood strategies. Reducing costs and risk through secure access to productive resources, markets, and financial services in a manner that accounts for heterogeneity in farming systems and local food security priorities are also essential. To this end, and with attention to national-level social and economic conditions, a pro-poor agricultural growth strategy is considered within a dynamic food sovereignty framework.

Keywords: Belize; Sustainable Agriculture; Small Farmers; Sustainable Rural Livelihoods; Subsistence Farmers; Agricultural Development; Political Agroecology; Local Food Systems; Adaptive Capacity; Food Sovereignty.

En este libro, un amplio elenco de investigadores forestales que trabajamos en centros de investigación distribuidos por todo el país vamos a tratar de mostrar las formas en que los bosques pueden ayudarnos a mitigar la pesadilla en que se puede  convertir el próximo siglo por el cambio del clima. La estructura del libro pretende presentar desde diversos puntos de vista el papel de los bosques en la mitigación del cambio climático, aún sabiendo que sólo un enérgico cambio de estilo de vida en los países desarrollados y que el resto de los países renuncien a basar su desarrollo en este estilo que se ha demostrado peligroso pueden realmente parar o mitigar los efectos de este
dramático proceso.
En el primer capítulo, se presenta un panorama general del proceso del cambio climático y de la estructura del sector forestal y del potencial de los bosques
para mitigarlo. Además, se muestra la estructura normativa que puede ayudar a incluir la gestión de los bosques como método de mitigación y la forma en que la contabilidad de esta mitigación puede ayudar al desarrollo económico
del país.
El capítulo segundo muestra el papel general que desempeñan los ecosistemas terrestres en la composición atmosférica y en el proceso del cambio climático, y expone el ciclo del carbono en los bosques de forma que se pueda entender después cómo se puede intervenir en la captura de los gases de efecto invernadero.
El capítulo tres desarrolla las diversas metodologías, incluyendo las basadas en el uso de satélites, para la cuantificación del carbono fijado en los bosques. En el capítulo cuatro, se explican las diferentes formas de gestión forestal que pueden ser usadas para mitigar el cambio climático, así como su impacto sobre este problema.
En el capítulo cinco se muestra la cuantificación del carbono fijado en los principales macizos forestales del país.
El capítulo seis presenta una metodología edafoclimática para la estimación del carbono orgánico de los suelos de la España peninsular a partir de más de mil perfiles edáficos distribuidos por todo el territorio descrito y por todos los ecosistemas forestales.
El capítulo siete aborda el problema de la integración del carbono capturado en la gestión forestal mediante el estudio de varios casos de masas forestales, tanto plantaciones como bosques naturales.
El capítulo ocho desarrolla el ciclo de vida útil de diferentes productos forestales y los ciclos de producción y reciclaje de los mismos, resaltando su papel como sumideros de carbono a largo plazo.
El capítulo nueve describe nuevos horizontes de la planificación de la gestión forestal y aspectos de política forestal que pueden potenciar la fijación de carbono en los bosques y la adaptación de éstos y de la selvicultura al cambio climático mediante tres instrumentos desarrollados recientemente: certificación forestal, red internacional de bosques modelos y manejo adaptativo.
Finalmente, en el capítulo diez se muestran, a modo de reflexión final, una serie de conclusiones derivadas de los diferentes capítulos que conforman este libro.
Esperamos con este texto contribuir a un debate realista y documentado donde los expertos deben informar a la opinión pública para que ésta influya sobre los políticos, que deben tomar las decisiones oportunas con respecto a este problema de todos.

Felipe Bravo

Aim: About 2 billion shea trees grow naturally on traditional fanning systems across 23 African countries generating shea
wastes on post-production on shea nut and butter. The shea wastes converted to biofertiliser by microbial inoculant and
improved processing techniques will improve the agro-ecology of the shea tree and climatic challenges resulting to improve
sustainable agriculture and farm crop value.
Materials and Methods: Shea wastes (cake and nut shell), Poultry waste, Organic agriculture wastes, Wood ash and
microbial inoculant organisms called OBD-Plus microbial inoculant (Broad spectrum) and composted in anaerobic digester.
During the anaerobic digestion process, organic compounds are broken down by bacteria and fungi. The shea biofertilizer
conducted to identify and assess the microbial contents of various biofertilizer products available in the market known as
imported Biofertilizer (Thailand, China and Australia). A total of 13 isolates of bacteria were identified from these
biofertilizer products and comparative analysis based on Shea-Biofertilizer (Nigeria). The impacts on selected crops grown
using shea biowaste inputs for the production of OBD-Biofertilizer was evaluated between 2011-2015 in different agroecology
in Nigeria.
Results: Imported Biofertilizer do not contain Mycofungicides , biological control agents (BCA) while OBD-Biofertilizer
(shea wastes base) contain Aspergillus Niger etcs. OBD-Biofertilizer contain Actinomycetes are also used as plant growth
promoting agents (help to produce plant growth hormones Indole-3-aceticacid), bio-control tools, bio-pesticide agents and
antifungal compounds as a source of agro active compounds.
Significance and Impact on farm crops value: Production yields on application of OBD-Biofertilizer for the selected crops
(Rice 4.4 t/ha, Maize 4t/ha and Sweet Potatoes 18 t /ha) compared to the control production yields (Rice 3.5 t/ha, Maize 2
t/ha and Sweet Potatoes 6.2 t/ha, Cassava 12t/h and sugarcane 39 t/ha ) relative to the national production yields average
(Rice 1.74 t/ha, Maize 1.4 t/ha, Sweet Potatoes 9.94 t/ha, Cassava 13..4 t/h and Sugar cane 31t/ha ). Application of either
OBD-Biofertilizer alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizer gave significantly higher yield (P<0.05) than control.
Possible domestication of shea tree using the biofertilizer produced because it contains plants growth regulators and
biological control agents.
Conclusion: OBD-Biofertilizer shea waste cake input is a multi-functionality agro-ecology innovation in sustainable
intensification for pro-poor development sustainable agriculture. Long-term organic amendment application can play a
positive role in climate change mitigation by soil carbon sequestration, which in turn, can reverse the process of soil
degradation, improves soil quality and health.

Keyword: Agro-ecology, Shea- Biofertilizer, Crops yield, Resilience, Triangulation, and Climatic change
mitigation and Sustainable agriculture