Hydrology/Hydrography

Complementary analysis of satellite mission data (altimetry, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometers (MODIS)) and climate fields over 2000–2009 was conducted to investigate the variability of the water cover surfaces and the geographical source of water inflowing into the Lake Poopó system. The results suggest that over the time span of 2000–2009 a great part of the variability of the Poopó system originates from geographic sources other than Lake Titicaca. Possible alternative causes include climate change inducing increased temperatures and greater evaporation rates along the Altiplano; increased glacier and snow melting over the Andes Cordillera; and a potential increased anthropogenic water use (such as irrigation, minery, etc.) throughout the path of the Desaguadero River (which connects lakes Titicaca and Poopó). This change in the hydrology of this region could lead to a collapse of water supplies and endanger the already fragile Poopó system as well as the regional socioeconomic system, which closely depends upon it.

The contribution presents a practical account of the techniques and systems for bathymetric survey which can be applied for the benefit of underwater archaeological research. Single-beam and multi-beam echosounder systems are compared as applied in surveying select Roman underwater structures along the coastline of the Slovenian shore. The two systems are basically similar, and yet there are several considerable differences in the field. While the first is relatively simple and it can produce a general morphological document of the sea bed, the second is technically much more advanced and at small depths can produce a detailed bathymetric model from which plans may then be compiled.

Turkey has been divided into 26 basins for studies related to water resources development. Surface areas of the basins range between 6,300 – 127,500 km2, the average being approximately 30,000 km2. Compared with nested watershed classification of U.S., the average size of Turkish national basins corresponds to the third-level (basins). Currently, a forth-level (sub-basins) with an average size of 1,820 km2 reside below the basins in U.S. classification. Even these sub-basins are found to be too large to adequately serve many water resource management needs. Two additional levels (watersheds and sub-watersheds) are currently under development in order to solve this problem. Taking this fact into consideration, currently existing basins of Turkey are supposed to be too large for effective water resources management and there is a need for delineation of sub-basins in a scientific manner. In this study, the boundaries of proto-type sub-basins are determined by using DEM-based automated delineation techniques. For this purpose, 30 arc-seconds SRTM30 DEM is re-projected into an equal area projection, hydrologic sinks are filled and inaccurate elevation values are corrected. In order to prevent invalid delineation of closed basins that cover approximately 10% of the country, water bodies located at the center of these basins are extracted from Global Land Cover Characteristics dataset of USGS and excluded from the process. Among the alternatives, Deterministic-8 (D-8) algorithm with modifications by Garbrecht and Martz is used to calculate flow direction and flow accumulation grids. Using these grids, a set of candidate sub-basins are generated by applying different area thresholds. A threshold of 1,000 km2 resulted in 359 sub-basins with an average size of 1,858 km2, both of which are found to be appropriate and manageable for nationwide usage. Similarity of the average size of the delineated sub-basins to that of U.S. sub-basins also supports this result.

La red hidrográfica de Caracas ha sido determinante para su desarrollo como ciudad desde el período colonial hasta el presente, en el abastecimiento de agua para el consumo, transporte fluvial de mercancías, regadío de plantaciones, canal de aguas servidas, desechos y de escorrentía. La ocurrencia de eventos catastróficos vinculados a respuestas hidrológicas extremas de los cursos de agua en la ciudad capital, ha sido de una frecuencia significativa, tal como lo atestigua el historial de eventos documentados. El objetivo de la investigación fue analizar la evolución de la quebrada Caroata como elemento transitorio del paisaje geográfico en la Caracas de las primeras décadas del siglo XX, teniendo el sector Avenida La Laguna-Los Magallanes de Catia, Parroquia Sucre, Distrito Capital, una susceptibilidad potencial ante riesgos geológicos e hidrometeorológicos.

ملخص بحث :
الموارد المائية والتنمية المستدامة في السهل الساحلي الجنوبي الغربي لليمن
مقدم إلى الملتقى الخامس للجغرافيين العرب الذي انعقد في دولة الكويت في ابريل 2009 م
أ.د.قادري عبد الباقي أحمد
نائب رئيس المجلس التنفيذي للجمعية الجغرافية اليمنية
قسم الجغرافيا – كلية الآداب – جامعة عدن – اليمن
الكلمات المفتاحية : موارد المياه , التنمية المستدامة , التنمية الحضرية , التنمية الزراعية .

تقع منطقة الدراسة : مدينة عدن , دلتا أبين ودلتا تبن , في السهل الساحلي الجنوبي الغربي لليمن بين خطي عرض44.49 - 45.29 شرقا , وهي تمتد من خط الساحل جنوبا وحتى أقدام الجبال الساحلية على بعد 35 كلم في المتوسط . هنا تتفاعل كل من التنمية الحضرية والتنمية الزراعية وتتنافس على الموارد المائية الشحيحة المتاحة فيها وخاصة موارد المياه الجوفية , الأمر الذي أثر بهذا القدر أو ذاك على منظومة التنمية المستدامة : المجتمع – الاقتصاد – البيئة .
وتعتبر مدينة عدن أكبر مركز حضري في منطقة الدراسة فضلا عن عدة مراكز حضرية ثانوية تقع في دلتا أبين ودلتا تبن المجاورتين لمدينة عدن . ووفقا لتعداد عام 2004 م بلغ عدد السكان في منطقة الدراسة 833312 نسمة استأثرت مدينة عدن وحدها بنحو 70.73 % من إجمالي عدد السكان في حين توزعت النسبة الباقية على دلتا أبين 16.15 % ودلتا تبن 13.12 % .
وبالنظر إلى تعدد الوظائف الحضرية لمدينة عدن والمتمثلة بالوظيفة التجارية والسياحية , ولموقعها المتميز على خط الملاحة الدولية وموقع نشاط ميناء عدن في الحياة الاقتصادية للمدينة , كل ذلك التطور والتنمية الاقتصادية أسهم منذ منتصف القرن العشرين في تنمية حضرية كان أبرز معالمها وخصائصها اتجاهات النمو الحضري للمدينة وتوسع التركيب الداخلي لها وزيادة الطلب على الموارد المائية لتلبية الاحتياجات الحضرية وللأنشطة الاقتصادية المختلفة , وذلك بالاعتماد على خزانات المياه الجوفية في كل من دلتا تبن ودلتا أبين .
وبالمقابل تعد كل من دلتا تبن ودلتا أبين الممتدتان شمال وشمال شرق مدينة عدن على التوالي أهم المناطق الزراعية في السهل الساحلي الجنوبي الغربي لليمن. حاليا تقدر الأراضي الخصبة القابلة للزراعة بحوالي 90 ألف هكتار ؛ 67.5 % منها توجد في دلتا أبين والباقي في دلتا تبن , مع نسبة محدودة تقدر بنحو 3 % تقع في ضواحي مدينة عدن .
ويقدر متوسط حجم المياه السطحية المتدفقة سنويا إلى دلتا أبين وإلى دلتا تبن حوالي 194 - 127 مليون متر مكعب على التوالي في حين قدر حجم التغذية السنوية للمياه الجوفية في دلتا أبين ودلتا تبن حوالي 94 - 112 مليون متر مكعب على التوالي . وعلى قلتها كانت هذه الموارد المائية ولا تزال مفتاح التنمية وتأتي في طليعة متطلبات التنمية الزراعة. وقد تمكن الإنسان هنا منذ ستينات القرن الماضي من الاستفادة القصوى من مياه السيول في مواسم تدفقها وتحويلها عبر منظومة متكاملة من شبكة الري السطحي إلى الأراضي الزراعية وتأمين احتياجات السكان من الخضروات والفواكه فضلا عن زراع القطن والأعلاف والحبوب. ومع ذلك فأن الكفاءة ة المنخفضة للري السطحي وضعف السيطرة على السيول الكبرى التي تسببت في عدة كوارث طبيعية وانصرفت هدرا إلى البحر فضلا عن تدهور الأراضي , كل ذلك يؤشر إلى تنمية زراعية غير مستدامة . من جانب آخر ونظرا لسيادة الظروف المناخية الجافة القاحلة وتذبذب الحجم السنوي لتصريف السيول اتجهت الزراعة إلى موارد المياه الجوفية وخاصة في الأجزاء الجنوبية القريبة من البحر منافسة بذلك قطاع تموينات المياه لأغراض التنمية الحضرية الأمر الذي نتج عنه هبوطا سريعا لمناسيب المياه الجوفية وتدهور نوعي وكمي لمواصفات المياه الصالحة للاستخدام البشري .
ولتأمين متطلبات التنمية الحضرية والتنمية الزراعية من المياه الآمنة صحيا والصالحة للري تم تنفيذ عدد من الإجراءات في ثمانينات القرن الماضي للحد من تدهور الموارد المائية الجوفية , وذلك من خلال تشريعات تمنع الحفر العشوائي للآبار وتحرمه في مناطق حقول مصادر تموينات المياه للأغراض الحضرية فضلا عن تأمين مصادر بديلة لتموينات المياه . غير أن الطفرة الديموغرافية والتنموية التي أعقبت توحد اليمن عام 1990 م أفرزت عدة إشكاليات بحثية وتطبيقية لمسألة الموارد المائية والتنمية المستدامة في منطقة الدراسة تتمثل في اختلالات التوازن بين متطلبات التنمية الحضرية والتنمية الزراعية من الموارد المائية من جهة وبين هذه الأخيرة و الاحتياجات البيئية للحفاظ على التنوع الحيوي في إطار الحفاظ على التنوع الحيوي من جهة أخرى , فضلا عن اختلالات التنمية المستدامة بين واقع الاحتياجات القائمة والاحتياجات المستقبلية من هذه الموارد ؛ تعكسها مجموعة من مؤشرات التنمية المستدامة .
ولتحليل تلك الاختلالات في القطاعين الحضري والزراعي في مدينة عدن ودلتا أبين ودلتا تبن في ارتباطهما بالموارد المائية المتاحة التي تشكل منظومة هيدرولوجية واحدة في التقسيم الإداري اليمني لموارد المياه , اعتمد على مؤشرات التنمية المستدامة التالية : مؤشر مواصفات المياه ودرجة تلوثها وطرق معالجتها وتحديد نسبة السكان الحاصلين على مياه آمنة صحيا والأساليب المتبعة في إدارة التنافس بين المستفيدين من الموارد المائية . وكذا مؤشر الإدارة البيئية للمياه ومؤشر العلاقة بين موارد المياه والسكان وتحديد معدلات نصيب الفرد من المياه يوميا فضلا عن المؤشرات المرتبطة بالتنمية الزراعية مثل مؤشر تدهور التربة والإنتاجية الزراعية واتجاهات التغير في الهيكل المحصولي الزراعي . وعلى سبيل المثال انخفض معدل نصيب الفرد من المياه في مدينة عدن من 182 لتر / اليوم عام 1990م إلى 83 لتر / اليوم عام 2006 م . من جهة أخرى تقلصت مساحات الرقعة الزراعية بسبب النمو العمراني وانخفضت مناسيب المياه الجوفية بسبب الحفر العشوائي للآبار وزيادة حجم المياه المسحوبة لأغراض الري رغم تدهور مواصفاتها ما أثر في الإنتاجية الزراعية للمحاصيل وبالتالي واقع ومستقبل التنمية الزراعية في منطقة الدراسة .
كما ساعد استخدام عدة طرق وأدوات بحثية : مثل أدوات نمذجة التوازن المائي بين العرض والطلب والتحليل المتعدد الجوانب لتحديد وتفسير أنماط العلاقات بين مختلف جوانب منظومة التنمية في منطقة الدراسة المستفيدة من الموارد المائية فضلا عن الأساليب الإحصائية للتنبؤ بالأوضاع المستقبلية حتى عام2025 م , على اقتراح التصورات الممكنة لمواجهة تحديات الألفية في مجال المياه وآفاق التنمية الحضرية والتنمية الزراعية في منطقة الدراسة .

عدن مارس 2008 م

This article aims to characterize the National Seaboard of Angola. To this end, we analyzed the way in which the current NMR is constituted, how it works and, using recommendations, certain changes were indicated for its improvement. Thus, the efficiency of the current NMR was problematized, based on the hypothesis that it still does not correspond to the needs that the Angolan coast presents, from the point of view of its monitoring of variations in the average sea water level. In order to achieve the proposed objective, the documentary and bibliographic research technique was used, as well as the deductive method with a quantitative approach. After analyzing the data collected in the field, it was concluded that the current National Seaboard of Angola does not yet meet the needs, and in order for it to establish itself as an efficient monitoring system, it will need to be improved based on some recommendations presented in this article.

Cosa ci fa un geografo nella redazione de La Città? Provo a rispondere subito. L'idea di un percorso, un taccuino di viaggio a puntate nasce dal desiderio, connesso al mio campo di indagine, di condividere e divulgare gli aspetti meno conosciuti, o forse soltanto dimenticati, del territorio salernitano. La geografia intesa non tanto come disciplina, ma come un approccio, di tipo spaziale, mnemonico, conoscitivo, per riappropriarci affettivamente di ciò che il ritmo frenetico e individualista della società, lo sviluppo, il modello economico predominante sono stati in grado di portarci via sotto gli occhi in un tempo così breve, se comparato all'età del pianeta. Un piccolo esercizio di riscoperta, consapevolezza e curiosità che non può che far bene alle nostre coscienze, rinvigorendo le nostre radici e l'amore che ci lega da sempre al luogo che ci ha visto nascere, o nel quale abbiamo scelto di vivere. La particolarità del contesto geografico nel quale sorge Salerno, protesa sul golfo lunato, cullata nella stretta fascia tra mare e rilievi, solcata da molti valloni e ricca di acque, cerniera mediana tra le due costiere diversamente e ugualmente divine, ci ha reso testimoni privilegiati di un mosaico paesaggistico e culturale di rara bellezza, dove convivono armoniosamente le forme, le tinte, gli ecosistemi e i fattori climatici più variegati. E' tuttavia di profonda importanza sentirsi partecipi di questo inestimabile dono con coscienza e rispetto: non da padroni, esclusivi fruitori di un microcosmo racchiuso dentro i confini amministrativi, o peggio ancora domestici, ma come ospiti, parte integrante ma non dominante di un confronto aperto con il territorio, compreso quello circostante, da cui dipendono le relazioni sociali, geologiche, climatiche e idrografiche, in ossequio alla necessità di attenzione e cura che ogni ambiente esige, agendo semmai come saggi custodi, disposti a scambiare un po' del proprio tempo per approfondire l'intenso dialogo dei nostri sensi con la natura e condividere con chi amiamo la conoscenza e i segreti dei suoi piaceri. La storia recente di Salerno ci insegna che il senso di appartenenza connesso ai luoghi è stato a volte confuso e commutato in un pericoloso vortice campanilistico, capace di distrarre l'attenzione dagli aspetti più intimi della relazione tra uomo ed ambiente a un acceso marketing del dinamismo e dell'efficienza territoriale. Gli effetti delle politiche di espansione urbana, non supportate da una reale crescita demografica, sono quotidianamente sotto la lente dell'osservatore, che registra purtroppo una serie di irrimediabili inosservanze sul piano della salvaguardia ambientale e della conservazione di luoghi simbolici, evocativi o addirittura inviolabili dal punto di vista del rischio idrogeologico. In ogni angolo del capoluogo, l'azione dell'uomo sul territorio ha spesso conosciuto derive privatistiche dettate dall'opportunità, dalla rendita e dalla posizione economica: un'oligarchia degli spazi e dei loro beneficiari, unita alla svalutazione di gran parte del patrimonio, ed al conseguente degrado legato soprattutto al consumo di suolo e alla noncuranza, che non ha saputo garantire il passaggio di una conoscenza profonda e una migliore fruizione per tutti. Non è difficile imbattersi, dentro i confini di Salerno, in strade, sentieri, valloni, agrumeti, giardini sottratti alla vista, interdetti all'accesso, talvolta nemmeno curati o utilizzati, che lasciano forse più spazio all'indifferenza piuttosto che ad una reale curiosità: l'immaginazione, la memoria storica, la topografia possono aiutarci a ricomporre i tasselli del complesso e prezioso acquerello che ha perso, nel tempo, gran parte della sua brillantezza. Nelle nostre esplorazioni proveremo a mettere in luce gli aspetti dimenticati che ancora, silenziosamente, scandiscono i luoghi della nostra vita: dalle stratificazioni archeologiche a quelle che erano le antiche vie di collegamento, da dove proviene l'acqua che beviamo, cos'erano un tempo i quartieri nei quali abitiamo, come venivano sfruttate le fertilissime terre su cui adesso sorge la zona orientale e quali tracce possono ancora testimoniarlo, cosa è rimasto di tutte quelle acque superficiali (oltre venti corsi d'acqua minori) che solcano, impercettibili, l'abitato di Salerno da Vietri a Pontecagnano. Non mancheremo di segnalare le criticità e le emergenze che potrebbero ancora essere risolte, per migliorare la vivibilità o restituire dignità a un paesaggio millenario e ancora ricco di fascino. Lasciatevi guidare in un tour panoramico che vi farà fare un salto nel passato, solleticando la voglia di riscoprire una bellezza dopo l'altra anche nel presente, con la speranza di poter conservarne molto più di un ricordo in un lontano futuro.

Hydrograph separation is considered as the first step to catchment-scale water balance analysis. A wide variety of hydrograph separation methods exists ranging from empirical to analytical and physical. This study discusses a physically-based approach that combines baseflow separation and event identification with minimal data requirement. The input datasets are basin-average rainfall and discharge time series. Outputs are baseflow time series, the timing of the runoff events, differentiated as single- or multi-peak, and the associated rainfall event time series. To assess the method’s feasibility, hydrograph properties are evaluated for both long-term (annual and monthly) and event-scale time series. Results show that the long-term derived baseflow indices are positive (negative) correlated with basin area (runoff coefficient). The event scale analysis shows that the timing-related parameters (i.e. durations of rainfall and flow events and time lag between rainfall to flow events) increase with basin area in terms of magnitude and variability. Similar dependence on basin scale is shown for the water balance-related parameters determined from this analysis, namely event rainfall and baseflow volumes and baseflow index. Water balance parameters are shown to be characterized with less degree of variability for single-peak events relative to multi-peak events.

Leonardo's enduring fascination with water―from its artistic representation to aquatic inventions and hydraulic engineering.

Formless, mutable, transparent: the element of water posed major challenges for the visual artists of the Renaissance. To the engineers of the era, water represented a force that could be harnessed for human industry but was equally possessed of formidable destructive power. For Leonardo da Vinci, water was an enduring fascination, appearing in myriad forms throughout his work. In Watermarks, Leslie Geddes explores the extraordinary range of Leonardo’s interest in water and shows how artworks by him and his peers contributed to hydraulic engineering and the construction of large river and canal systems.

From drawings for mobile bridges and underwater breathing apparatuses to plans for water management schemes, Leonardo evinced a deep interest in the technical aspects of water. His visual studies of the ways in which landscape is shaped by water demonstrated both his artistic mastery and probing scientific mind. Analyzing Leonardo’s notebooks, plans, maps, and paintings, Geddes argues that, for Leonardo and fellow artists, drawing was a form of visual thinking and problem solving essential to understanding and controlling water and other parts of the natural world. She also examines the material importance in this work of water-based media, namely ink, watercolor, and oil paint.

A compelling account of Renaissance art and engineering, Watermarks shows, above all else, how Leonardo applied his pictorial genius to water in order to render the natural world in all its richness and constant change.

The infrastructure of the original Guapo river dam project at El Guamito site (Miranda state, Venezuela), built and commissioning during the 1975-1977 period, collapsed in December 1999 as a result of the extraordinary rains observed at that time, which generated maximum discharges with magnitudes higher than the design discharge of the work. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the relationship between the hydrogeomorphological response of the Guapo river basin generated by this extraordinary rains event, the characteristics of the physical and biological media, and the conditions that these determined for the collapse of the dam. Variables of the physical and biological media, in particular climatic and hydrological aspects, were characterized. Morphometric parameters of the basin and its drainage network were measured and calculated. Topographic and geomorphological features were described with the construction of profiles. The physical and biological elements (geology, relief, geomorphology, topography, soil, vegetation, climate, drainage and hydrology) that coexist in the area of the basin have an important influence on the hydrogeomorphological responses of the system (floods, sediment production and haulage and mass movements). The morphometric characteristics of the basin indicate a high correspondence between these aspects and the collapse of the spillway, since they favoured the high discharges that were estimated at the dam site during the occurrence of this adverse event.

La red hidrográfica de Caracas ha sido determinante para su desarrollo como ciudad desde el período colonial hasta el presente, en el abastecimiento de agua para el consumo, transporte fluvial de mercancías, regadío de plantaciones, canal de aguas servidas, desechos y de escorrentía. La ocurrencia de eventos catastróficos vinculados a respuestas hidrológicas extremas de los cursos de agua en la ciudad capital, ha sido de una frecuencia significativa, tal como lo atestigua el historial de eventos documentados. El objetivo de la investigación fue analizar la evolución de la quebrada Caroata como elemento transitorio del paisaje geográfico en la Caracas de las primeras décadas del siglo XX, teniendo el sector Avenida La Laguna-Los Magallanes de Catia, Parroquia Sucre, Distrito Capital, una susceptibilidad potencial ante riesgos geológicos e hidrometeorológicos.

This essay examines the factors that determine water availability for Loreto, including climate, hydrology, potable water supply, and water demand and use. The study also explores options for increasing the water supply needs in the face of expanding population and development and the challenges of climate change. Specifically, the chapter examines the impact of drought and assess the vulnerability of aquifers owing to climate change. Finally, we discuss the potential impacts of integrally planned tourist developments similar those in Los Cabos, given the precarious nature of Loreto’s water supply, and the need for strategies to prevent, mitigate or compensate this impacts.

ISBN: 978-1-938537-17-2

Surface runoff consists of that portion of the precipitation reaching the surface that neither infiltrates into the ground nor is retained on the surface. The quantity of surface runoff is
controlled by a complex variety of factors. Included among these are precipitation intensity and duration, permeability of the ground surface, vegetation type and density, area of drainage basin, distribution of precipitation, stream-channel geometry, depth to water table, and topographic slope. Also, in this term paper, runoff processes, runoff components, polluted runoff, runoff effects, mitigation and treatment of runoff and methods of estimating runoff were discussed.

IL FIUME IRNO Se, certamente, di alcuni dei venticinque torrenti che attraversano Salerno e che stiamo passando in rassegna, ci sfugge il ricordo, lo stesso non vale per il fiume Irno, a cui dedichiamo interamente la terza puntata di questo nostro viaggio. E' il fiume di Salerno, il più lungo e regolare tra quelli che attraversano l'abitato. Ricco di acque, di storia e suggestioni, percorre l'omonima valle da cui discende, fino a tagliare in due la città. Va detto che esistono altri due fiumi di una certa importanza a Salerno, il Fuorni e il Picentino, caratterizzati da una portata e regolarità notevoli, ma questi scorrono ai margini del contesto urbano, nell'area che va dalla zona industriale al confine con Pontecagnano, marcandone solo in minima parte l'impianto urbanistico, senza far parte di quell'immaginario fluviale fatto di incontri ravvicinati e quotidiani attraversamenti. L'Irno, che ha avuto un ruolo importante anche nelle prime fasi di un'industrializzazione pionieristica e originale, di cui parleremo più avanti, è un fiume lungo circa 11 km, dalle sorgenti abbastanza incerte. Si origina infatti da molti rami diversi che discendono dalle montagne intorno a Baronissi, tra questi a Fusara e Caprecano possiamo trovare i più consistenti. La sua presenza si attesta già tra Antessano e Acquamela, dove scorre rapido in un letto dal fondo ancora naturale, seppur incassato in un alveo fortemente condizionato dall'uomo: ponti, ponticelli, accessi privati e parcheggi di fabbriche costellano e soffocano le sue sponde alberate di tigli, platani, aceri e pioppi e punteggiate di candide pietre. Un andamento sempre rettilineo e una pendenza non troppo scoscesa lo caratterizzano lungo tutto il corso: uno dei ponti più antichi che lo attraversano è proprio quello di Acquamela, sulla strada nazionale dei Due Principati, che lo scavalca con una curva a forma di esse. Impossibile dimenticare come, fino a poco tempo fa, vi campeggiasse ogni anno un curioso striscione che ricordava l'avvicinarsi della sagra della "granogna", cioè delle rane. Catturate in loco, adesso forse considerate un gourmet esotico e stravagante, ma un tempo molto apprezzate, sorprende rievocarle come alimento. Nei poteri del fiume c'era anche questo. A questa altezza, per un breve tratto, le sue sponde sono già incanalate nel tipico alveo di cemento e lastroni visibile poi anche a Salerno. Ad osservarlo da qui, sembra una miniatura di quello che passa in città. Per tutta la parte alta del suo corso è conosciuto col nome di Nofilo e così, superata Acquamela, si insinua nel primo dei tratti interessati dal Parco Fluviale dell'Irno, area protetta di interesse sovracomunale, ma dagli accessi e dalle funzioni non ben definite. La sua discesa prosegue verso Cologna, Coperchia, ed infine Capezzano e il rione Piombino. Costeggiato qua e là da una fitta vegetazione, da un'isola ecologica e da quello che Gillès Clement definirebbe un "terzo paesaggio" di baracche, officine e coltivazioni, arriva a formare tre piccoli laghi di espansione fluviale, realizzati a partire dal 2004 con l'obiettivo di depurare le acque mediante la filtratura con dighe di massi, caratterizzare il contesto ambientale e incentivare la pesca e la fruizione pubblica. Traguardi raggiunti con insufficienza a causa della carente manutenzione, la miope gestione degli sversamenti e la mancanza di attività, tutti elementi che hanno condotto ad un inesorabile abbandono di tutta l'area. Uscito dall'ultimo di questi laghetti, il fiume si dirige verso Salerno, e fu proprio in questa zona che si originò il miracolo economico dell'industria cotoniera, tra le prime e più floride di tutto il Regno, che consegnò a Salerno l'appellativo di "Manchester delle Due Sicile": accortisi dell'enorme potenziale costituito dall'abbondanza di una manodopera locale a basso costo, già esperta nell'arte della lana e dalla ricchezza di acque (alimentate da sorgenti un tempo molto più

ve kıbrıs-Antakya transform Fayı'nın buluştuğu üçlü eklem noktasında yer almaktadır. Bu sebeple mineralli suların yüzeye çıkmasında büyük etkiye sahip olan kırıklı yapı ilin tamamında izlenebilmektedir. kuvaterner volkanizmasının da bölgede etkili olduğu düşünüldüğünde, soğumamış magma ceplerinin ilin jeotermal potansiyeline katkıda bulunmuş olduğu söylenebilir. Bütün etmen ve süreçler neticesinde Hatay'da 12 ayrı bölgede toplanmış bulunan 46 mineralli su kaynağı ortaya çıkmıştır. Bunlardan 34'ü mineralli, 9'u mineralce fakir olup, 3'üne ait tahlil sonucu ise mevcut değildir. İldeki kaynakların 27'si sıcak, 10'u ise soğuk mineralli sulara sahip olup, 9 kaynağın sıcaklık ölçümü yapılmamıştır.

An American hamburger typically consists of a grilled or fried patty of ground beef served on a round bun. The beef patty is seasoned with salt and pepper, and sometimes other ingredients like onion, garlic, or Worcestershire sauce may be added to enhance the flavor. The bun is usually lightly toasted and may be coated with butter or other condiments like mayonnaise or mustard. The hamburger may also be topped with a variety of condiments and toppings, such as lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, and cheese. 14 Caesar salat Caesar salad is a classic and popular salad that is believed to have originated in Mexico in the early 20th century. It typically consists of romaine lettuce leaves, croutons, grated Parmesan cheese, and a creamy dressing made with lemon juice, garlic, olive oil, egg yolks, and anchovy fillets. The salad is named after Caesar Cardini, an Italian-American restaurateur who is said to have invented the salad in 1924 at his restaurant in Tijuana, Mexico. The story goes that during a busy day in the kitchen, Cardini ran out of ingredients and had to improvise with what he had on hand, creating the now-famous Caesar salad.

Major river valleys (e.g. Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari, Kosi etc.) of India have remained as cradles of human livelihood and achievements throughout the course of human history. In the same way, contributing with floods the Damodar valley of eastern India is nurturing its civilization in different phases through almost 3,500 year. Documented history of ruinous extreme floods is more than 347 years old (1665 – 2012) in the Damodar River. It is true that when this river is in the extreme phase, none can withstand against its power. Still we are not now fully capable to manage the adamant nature of river particularly in the monsoon period. Simultaneously the uncertain event, e.g. cloud burst, heavy monsoon rainfall and cyclones etc., and resultant flash floods are not forecast accurately. As the catchment of Damodar has good physiographic and hydro-meteorological potentiality of floods, it is imperative to know the current status of flood probability and risk. So here an attempt is made to investigate the temporal variation (i.e. natural phase – without dams and controlled phase – with dams) of annual peak flows understanding the dam induced flood hydrological changes in the Damodar River. Using the quantitative techniques, viz., Flood Potential Index (FPI), Flash Flood Magnitude Index (FFMI) and Flood Frequency Analysis (FFA), the magnitude of flash floods and channel dimensions are analyzed to derive significant explanation and prediction about the flood risk in the lower segment of Damodar River.

Rapid urbanization has greatly increased the volume of runoff generated in many developed areas and subsequently resulting in flooding. This study evaluated the flood prone area of Igbokoda town in Ondo State and developed a flood risk map to facilitate proper planning and future flood mitigation. Scientific technique of GIS was used to identify flood risk areas within the study area. The Landsat 5 (TM), Landsat 7 (ETM+) and Landsat 8 (LC) images for 1986, 1999 and 2013 coupled with STRM 90 m DEM data of the area were used to identify three categorized risk zones. A total of 339 basins were delineated and stream network on the landscape of this area were carved. Hydrological and vegetation cover analyses were conducted using the satellite imageries obtained from United States Geological Surveys Archive online over the study area for three different epochs 1986, 1999 and 2013. There was a sharp decrease in area of vegetation cover from 1986 (19,630 ha) to 1999 (16,527.36 ha) and in 2013 (12,246.80 ha). The hydrological analysis results revealed that a major part of the residential area within the largest basin delineated was associated with low elevation and high slope angle. The combined stream network and slope of the area were used in developing flood risk zones. Three zones were specified: high, medium, and low flood risk zones. The total area covered by the high risk zone was 28.5615 km 2 while the area of the medium and small risk zones were 15.94759 km 2 and 31.3619 km 2 respectively. It is recommended that an increased awareness on flood risk zone should be created among the populace of Igbokoda to guide them in further development.

Positioning is considered one of the most important key in any hydrographic application. Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) technique has been commonly used in hydrographic positioning. However, the use of DGPS method is highly depending on the availability of correction reception within the area. Starfix.G2+ is a satellite based positioning system developed by Fugro that uses Precise Point Positioning to carry out absolute positioning technique. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the Starfix.G2+ positioning system and compare against the Hemisphere Vector VS330. Comparisons were made against a known point using static mode. On top of that, hydrographic positioning was conducted around Pulau Merambong for data acquisition in kinematic mode. The results show Starfix.G2+ achieved 95% accuracy of 0.034m and 0.047m for two sessions. Meanwhile, the Hemisphere Vector VS330 shows a 95% accuracy of 0.98m, 0.54m, and 1.34m for first, second, and third session respectively. The first kinematic trajectory shows a RMS of 1.59m and the mean satellites observed by the G2+ and VS330 are 15 satellites and 9 satellites respectively. The second kinematic trajectory results show VS330 encountered lost of lock to all satellites and position lost at area of bridge. As a conclusion, the Hemisphere Vector VS330 is not comparable to the Starfix.G2+ in terms of accuracy, precision, and performance. The PPP method has a huge advantage over the DGPS method in hydrographic positioning.

"El mayor museo de Colombia esta en las profundidades del Mar Caribe". El articulo, ademas de mostrar la motivación personal del autor y sus vínculos durante los últimos años con el Galeón San Jose, presenta una breve explicación del proceso y entrega tres lineas de investigación científicas para un proyecto de vital importancia para el Estado Colombiano y el mundo entero sobre patrimonio sumergido, ciencia y tecnología.

Ocean floor and the shape of the shoreline are major influencers of the changes in tidal propagation. Bathymetry;
a survey operation aimed at determining the nature of the underwater level and topography of a water body’s bed
level plays a cogent role in the determination of both the shape of the shoreline and the ocean floor thereby aiding the monitoring and spatio-temporal modelling of the changes in tidal propagation as much as it ensures the availability of hydro-data which is the foundation of a Maritime Database Management System (MDBMS). This work presents the findings of the bathymetric survey and volumetric analysis of Suleja Dam located in the North central Region of Nigeria. The Differential Global Positioning System receiver (DGPS) (Promark 3), automatic level, echomap 50s in conjunction with the engine boat were used during this research. The data acquired was processed using the GNSS solutions software with the chart plotted in surfer 9 software environment. The surface area of the dam was discovered to be 24.64ha less than the designed area. Also the volume of water was found to be 3.6 x 106m3
in contrast to the design volume of 34.7x106m3. It was also
observed that the lowest water depth was 0.56m and the highest water depth was 22.06m, therefore a difference of 5.94m was obtained as against the initial construction depth of 28.00m. The undulating nature of the reservoir bed and the difference in volume of water and surface area covered by the dam are pointers and clear indications of sedimentation and siltation process going on in the dam.

For determining of Muskingum model coefficients, requires to an output hydrograph. Such hydrograph is not available in most rivers. In this research, the Muskingum's new coefficients are determined by the method that which is not require to output hydrograph and its accuracy is high. This coefficient is determined based on kinematic wave model with suitable scheme. The comparison between results of Muskingum model with new coefficients and dynamic wave model, showed that the new coefficients, are valid at special conditions. The new coefficients were adjusted by optimization technique for all conditions. The new adjusted coefficients are function of bed slop, bottom width and Manning's roughness coefficient for the river. The results of these coefficients were validated by dynamic wave model.

Au cours du mois de décembre 2016, des chutes de pluie imposantes sont tombées particulièrement sur la Tunisie orientale et centrale, 3.5 fois supérieures à la normale. Elles ont provoqué un gonflement impressionnant des oueds causant des débordements aux effets importants ainsi qu'une stagnation des eaux sur de larges étendues rarement connue. L'imagerie radar Sentinel-1 à laquelle nous avons eu recours dans ce travail constitue en effet un moyen précieux pour la cartographie des terrains inondés comme pour la connaissance des hydrosystèmes mis en activité lors des crues. Elle est utilisée seule ou conjointement, à travers une approche géomatique, avec d'autres données in situ et de supports cartographiques et photographiques.

It is understood that the flow of water in coastal and ocean area are due to various factors and tidal stream identified as one of the factors. The tide generating force is produced by the movement of celestial bodies and its attraction forces. Basically the effect of it is in vertical and horizontal changes which known as tide and tidal stream. The tidal stream has very much influenced the movement of water especially in shallow water and understand the principle its phenomena can be predicted. Tidal stream analysis and prediction are among the scopes of works for the Hydrographic Surveyor. Nowadays, there are several technologies and software available to be used for these purposes. The GeoTide software is known as one of the commercial software used for tidal stream analysis and prediction. It is highlighted by the producer that a part of used for tide prediction, the GeoTide software is also a complete solution for tidal stream prediction. Designed for the professional hydrographer, unique package contains all the elements needed to create a high quality prediction of tidal stream. The study proposes to elaborate the use of the software to analyze the stream data and predict the tidal stream in the study area, trying to highlight the limitation and its reliability. It is also hoped that the outcomes of the research can be used as reference for future development of software.

Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT) provides legal value in presenting historical and existing facts to judicial bodies in their efforts to achieve the peaceful use of the seas, consistent with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The 2016 South China Sea Arbitration highlighted the value of GEOINT and demonstrates how GEOINT will be important in promoting a rules-based order in the maritime domain.

Mounding often occurs beneath engineering structures designed to infiltrate reuse water. AQTESOLV software and a spreadsheet solution for Hantush, together with soil moisture water balance (SWAGMAN farm model), were used for quantitatively predicting the height and extent of groundwater mounding underground to assess the groundwater-flow simulations of infiltration from a hypothetical irrigation site. Horizontal and vertical permeability, aquifer thickness, specific yield, and basin geometry are among the aquifer and recharge properties inputs. For 2.2 ha sites, the maximum heights of the simulated groundwater mound ranges up to 0.29 m. The maximum areal extent of groundwater mounding measured from the edge of the infiltration basins of 0.24 m ranges from 0 to 75 m. Additionally, the simulated height and extent of the groundwater mounding associated with a hypothetical irrigation infiltration basin for 2.2 ha development may be applicable to sites of different sizes, using the recharge rate estimated from the SWAGMAN farm model. For example, for a 2.2 ha site with a 0.0002 m/day recharge rate, the irrigation infiltration basin design capacity (and associated groundwater mound) would be the same as for a 1.1 ha site with a 0.0004 m/day recharge rate if the physical characteristics of the aquifer are unchanged. The study claimed that the present modelling approach overcomes the complications of solving the Hantush equation for transient flow. The approach utilised in this study can be applied for other purposes such as measuring the feasibility of infiltrating water, attenuation zone, risk mitigation essential for decision-makers and planning regulators in terms of environmental effects and water use efficiency.

Faylar yer kabuğundaki dislokasyon hatlarıdır. Buralar, yer kabuğunun formunda ve yapısında değişikliklerin oluştuğu jeomorfolojik birimler olarak da değerlendirilebilir. Kaynaklar ise, yeraltı sularının yer kabuğunun yüzeyine çıktığı sahalardır. Dolayısıyla yer kabuğunun yapısında meydana gelen değişiklikler, kaynakların oluşum ve gelişimi üzerinde de gerek doğrudan gerekse dolaylı etkiye sahiptir. Bu çalışmada birçok kaynağın meydan gelmesi, gelişmesi ve ortadan kalkması üzerinde fayların ve faylı strüktürlerin direkt ve dolaylı etkileri incelenmiş, bazı fay-kaynak ilişkileri şematik olarak ortaya konulmuştur.

It has become necessary to estimate the quantities of runoff by knowing the amount of rainfall to calculate the required quantities of water storage in reservoirs and to determine the likelihood of flooding. The present study deals with the development of a hydrological model named Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC-HMS), which uses Digital Elevation Models (DEM). This hydrological model was used by means of the Geospatial Hydrologic Modeling Extension (HEC-GeoHMS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) to identify the discharge of the Al-Adhaim River catchment and embankment dam in Iraq by simulated rainfall-runoff processes. The meteorological models were developed within the HEC-HMS from the recorded daily rainfall data for the hydrological years 2015 to 2018. The control specifications were defined for the specified period and one day time step. The Soil Conservation Service-Curve number (SCS-CN), SCS Unit Hydrograph and Muskingum methods were used for loss, transformation a...

A groundwater resources assessment has been carried out for the Lake Nyasa Basin east Africa, with reference to sub catchments further to the whole basin wise analysis, including quantification of potential yields from the aquifers. Numerical groundwater models, MODFLOW-SURFACT coupled with Visual MODFLOW, were used to assess sub-basin groundwater sustainability (Via “Zone Budget” software package). The model has been calibrated to observed hydraulic head and processed baseflow estimate. It is concluded that the aquifer system is sustained by episodic recharge and the long-term gaining storage which represents the maximum extractable volume. Future predictions of groundwater usage indicate that by 2035 the percentage of annual safe yield extracted will increase to between 11.3 and 103%. Model result suggests that there is a need to revise the current estimate of sustainable yield based on future climate change conditions and projected population growth, which would decrease spring flows substantially and decrease hydraulic head basin-wide. It also suggests that by 2035 some sub catchments will be nearly at or exceeding the annual safe yield leaving no room for socio-economic development, or the need to reduce existing socio-economic demands to meet domestic demands. Besides to improving the natural replenishment capacity through artificial recharge technique, the other option is to increase the percentage of total recharge allocated to the annual safe yield from 10% of the total annual recharge to 20% in these catchments. This provides a basis for management of individual groundwater scheme in sustaining livelihood activities or implications of policies and to develop a plan for potential groundwater extraction scenarios pertaining to water use and allocation.

This paper introduces a new approach for determining the most likely initiation points for landslides from potential instability mapped using a terrain stability model. This approach identifies the location with critical stability index from a terrain stability model on each downslope path from ridge to valley. Any measure of terrain stability may be used with this approach, which here is illustrated using results from SINMAP, and from simply taking slope as an index of potential instability. The relative density of most likely landslide initiation points within and outside mapped landslide scars provides a way to evaluate the effectiveness of a terrain stability measure, even when mapped landslide scars include run out zones, rather than just initiation locations. This relative density was used to evaluate the utility of high resolution terrain data derived from airborne laser altimetry (LIDAR) for a small basin located in the Northeastern Region of Italy. Digital Terrain Models were derived from the LIDAR data for a range of grid cell sizes (from 2 to 50 m). We found appreciable differences between the density of most likely landslide initiation points within and outside mapped landslides with ratios as large as three or more with the highest ratios for a digital terrain model grid cell size of 10 m. This leads to two conclusions: (1) The relative density from a most likely landslide initiation point approach is useful for quantifying the effectiveness of a terrain stability map when mapped landslides do not or can not differentiate between initiation, runout, and depositional areas; and (2) in this study area, where landslides occurred in complexes that were sometimes more than 100 m wide, a digital terrain model scale of 10 m is optimal. Digital terrain model scales larger than 10 m result in loss of resolution that degrades the results, while for digital terrain model scales smaller than 10 m the physical processes responsible for triggering landslides are obscured by smaller scale terrain variability

Hand-dug wells are widely used in developing countries and in many areas for hundreds of years. There are also a large number of donor-funded rural water supply projects based on the construction of hand-dug wells. Hand-dug wells are constructed with simple tools in weathered rock, overburden or sedimentary formations. The well is lined to the aquifer with concrete rings. Penetration into the water-bearing zone can be done with caisson rings. This allows further deepening of the well in case that the water table falls. Construction can be done with a high degree of community participation. Digging and the construction work give the villagers a chance to contribute. They can work on their facility under supervision from the construction company. Alternative designs employ different lining methods such as in-situ lining by casting concrete into moulds, cement block lining, ferrocement lining.

In pursuit of Nigeria's international obligations on maritime safety, the elimination of dangers to search and rescue efforts in our coastal waters, environmental pollution and destruction of maritime habitats, and hide-out for sea-borne criminal elements, the Federal Ministry of Transport through the National Maritime Authority (NMA), entered into an agreement on June 16, 2003, with Humber Marine Werks Limited (HMW) for Consultancy on Removal of Wrecks and Derelicts in Nigerian Waterways. The aim of the contract was to conduct hydrographic survey of Lagos Ports Area; a critical input to quotations for actual removal of wrecks by contractors to be nominated by the Ministry. It is the first out of four phases of survey contracts required to cover the various port areas in Nigeria. Humber Marine developed a survey priority plan, which identified those areas with the highest risk of maritime accidents, taking cognizance of traffic volume, inadequacy of charts or previous surveys, and potentially insufficient under-keel clearance. State-of-the art technologies were deployed to increase the quality of field data collection. Some of the most significant technological survey tools deployed were Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS), echo sounder, magnetometer, and side scan sonar systems with the corresponding computer software-such as HYPACK Max hydrographic software, AutoCAD 2000 software, Surfer Digital Terrain Modelling (DTM) software, and HydroCAD software for reducing sounding data – among others.

Anche se questo dato non gode di una grande risonanza, Salerno è uno dei capoluoghi italiani che conta il maggior numero di corsi d'acqua sul proprio teritorio: circa venticinque, quasi tutti di dimensioni modeste, ma di cui molti a carattere regolare, a testimonianza dell'abbondanza di acque che si irraggiano dai rilievi al mare, per tutta l'ampiezza della fascia collinare che fa da sfondo alla città consolidata. Di questi, alcuni sono tributari dei tre corsi d'acqua maggiori (l'Irno, il Fuorni e il Picentino), mentre i restanti versano le proprie acque direttamente nel mare sul quale, nel'arco di circa 7 km, l'intero abitato si affaccia. Sono diversi i motivi per cui dovremmo essere debitori ai nostri torrenti, questi silenziosi scultori di un paesaggio arcaico e frastagliato, provenienti dai numerosi valloni, che hanno modellato nel tempo la fisionomia del golfo e determinato gran parte delle condizioni economiche e insediative, sin dalla prima comparsa dell'uomo. Ad essi si deve, infatti, la formazione del litorale grazie all'apporto di materiale litico e detriti, nonché la nascita della prima zona industriale della città, che si sviluppò sulle rive dell'Irno tra Fratte e Pellezzano, mentre le prime popolazioni si insediarono tra il Pastorano e l'Irno in epoca preistorica, greca e poi etrusco-sannitica, e a ridosso del Fusandola (il cosiddetto Plaium Montis) in epoca romana e medievale. Mentre l'ampio solco del Bonea, proveniente dai monti di Cava, che segna con la sua vallata l'antico ed unico accesso verso Napoli e l'Agro, percorso tutt'oggi dalla Statale 18 e dalla soprastante E45, non rientra nei limiti di Salerno, passiamo in rassegna, dal primo all'ultimo, i torrenti che invece attraversano la nostra città. Proveniendo da Vietri, superato il costone roccioso che sovrasta la baia, incontriamo per primi due dirupi scoscesi, che convogliano l'acqua piovana del monte San Liberatore, che prendono il nome di Olivieri e Caiafa, attraversati, oltre che dall'autostrada, anche dal sentiero della Valle, che da Canalone conduce a Marini. Il primo corso d'acqua di effettiva rilevanza idraulica, oltre che storica, è il Fusandola, o Canalone, drammaticamente noto per essere stato tra quelli che maggiormente sconvolsero, incanalando le piogge torrenziali, il centro storico di Salerno nella tragica alluvione del 24 ottobre 1954, che provocò 107 morti. Il torrente Fusandola, secondo alcuni anticamente chiamato Salum, nasce a circa 500m s.l.m. in località Croce nei pressi del confine con il Comune di Cava de' Tirreni, dal quale inizia la sua discesa, fiancheggiato da un antico sentiero (Fossa Lupara) ancora oggi meta di escursionisti, diretti al monte Telegrafo e fino alle Creste di Pellezzano. Tagliando in due, con una serie di cascatelle atte a ridurne la forte pendenza, il quartiere di Canalone, che anticamente era fuori dai confini di Salerno, viene scavalcato dalla via Paesano, dal ponte a campata unica dell'Autostrada e dal tratto iniziale del viadotto Gatto, mostrando a tutti, nel letto qui fattosi più ampio, la caparbietà della vegetazione che ha saturato ogni spazio, tra terrazzamenti, dislivelli e baracche, facendo sentire necessaria, ma costantemente carente, una manutenzione che dovrebbe tutelare l'incolumità delle case più a valle. Sul suo percorso si affacciano orti terrazzati, ville e giardini di secolare bellezza, tra cui il Giardino della Minerva, riconosciuto come il più antico degli orti botanici di tutta Europa, le cui vasche erano approvvigionate dalle sorgenti del Plaium Montis, e incide, col suo tracciato, parte dell'antica cinta muraria che racchiudeva la città ad occidente (motivo per il quale uno dei suoi versanti, che digradava verso la Porta Catena, era un tempo escluso dalla città). Passato il cordolo di via Spinosa, che lo scavalca immediatamente dopo la linea ferroviaria, si lancia in un tuffo di circa 15 metri, denominato "salto del Fusandola", con il quale chiude il suo transito a vista nella città. La strada omonima, infatti, che discende fino alla chiesa dell'Annunziata, lo ricopre segnando il primo esempio di un dato che incontreremo frequentemente, e cioè la diffusa abitudine di intubare i corsi d'acqua per fare posto agli assi viari perpendicolari alla linea di costa, che ha contribuito più di ogni altra cosa a cancellare dalla memoria la presenza dei torrenti in città. Prosegue il suo corso al di sotto della villa comunale, e sfocia al margine della spiaggia di S. Teresa, umiliato a squallido sembiante di uno scolo fognario, laddove un tempo fu approdo di navi e canale per floridi scambi, come attestato da diverse fonti iconografiche. Perdipiù, in tempi recenti, l'assetto della sua foce è stato ulteriormente stravolto, piegato alla logica della lottizzazione, con la realizzazione di una curva sotterranea, che ha deviato il suo percorso originariamente rettilineo, per mano dei