Greenhouse Gas

During the last glacial-interglacial cycle, northern hemispheric (NH) ice-sheets experienced dramatic changes in radiative forcing, due to orbitally-driven insolation changes and varying greenhouse gas concentrations. This direct forcing caused temperature changes and eventually ablation anomalies. Orbital-scale variations in the atmospheric circulation caused anomalies in temperature advection and precipitation/snowfall that also strongly contributed to the mass balance and hence the time-evolution

Soil fumigation has recently been shown to affect the greenhouse gas balance by increasing emissions of nitrous oxide (N 2 O) following chloropicrin (CP) application. However, the exact mechanisms of this increase were not investigated. The purpose of this study was to elucidate potential mechanisms of CP-induced N 2 O production through laboratory incubations using chemical inhibitors (acetylene, antibacterial, antifungal, and oxygen), isotopically labeled 15 N-CP, and pH modifications of a forest nursery soil. Results showed that N 2 O production increased by 12.6 times following CP fumigation. Microbial activity contributed 82% to the CP-induced N 2 O production, with the remaining 18% from abiotic processes as determined by incubation with sterilized soil. Inhibitor studies suggested that 20% of the N 2 O production was from bacteria and 70% from fungi. There were no significant differences in N 2 O production following CP fumigation under various levels of acetylene (0, 10, and 10 kPa), suggesting that traditional nitrification and denitification reactions did not significantly contribute to N 2 O production following CP fumigation. 15 N labeled studies indicated that 12% of fumigant source N was incorporated into the produced N 2 O. No enrichment in N 2 was observed, indicating that N 2 O was one of the terminal biotic mineralization products of CP. Production of N 2 O is aerobic and production rates increased with increasing oxygen concentrations. Our data strongly suggested that fungal mediated denitrification reactions under aerobic conditions were the primary mechanism for CP-induced N 2 O production.

Anthropogenically-derived increases in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations have been implicated in recent climate change, and are projected to substantially impact the climate on a global scale in the future. For marine and freshwater systems, increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases are expected to increase surface temperatures, lower pH, and cause changes to vertical mixing, upwelling, precipitation, and evaporation patterns. The potential consequences of these changes for harmful algal blooms (HABs) have received relatively little attention and are not well understood. Given the apparent increase in HABs around the world and the potential for greater problems as a result of climate change and ocean acidification, substantial research is needed to evaluate the direct and indirect associations between HABs, climate change, ocean acidification, and human health. This research will require a multidisciplinary approach utilizing expertise in climatology, oceanography, biology, epidemiology, and other disciplines. We review the interactions between selected patterns of large-scale climate variability and climate change, oceanic conditions, and harmful algae.

Uncontrolled release of pollutants from burning coal beds and waste banks presents potential environmental and human health hazards. On a global scale, the emissions of large volumes of greenhouse gases from burning coal beds may contribute to climate change that alters ecosystems and patterns of disease occurrence. On regional and local scales, the emissions from burning coal beds and waste banks of acidic gases, particulates, organic compounds, and trace elements can contribute to a range of respiratory and other human health problems. Although there are few published reports of health problems caused by these emissions, the potential for problems can be significant. In India, large numbers of people have been displaced from their homes because of health problems caused by emissions from burning coal beds. Volatile elements such as arsenic, fluorine, mercury, and selenium are commonly enriched in coal deposits. Burning coal beds can volatilize these elements, which then can be inhaled, or adsorbed on crops and foods, taken up by livestock or bioaccumulated in birds and fish. Some of these elements can condense on dust particles that can be inhaled or ingested. In addition, selenium, arsenic, lead, tin, bismuth, fluorine, and other elements condense where the hot gaseous emissions come in contact with ambient air, forming mats of concentrated efflorescent minerals on the surface of the ground. These mats can be leached by rainwater and washed into local water bodies providing other potential routes of exposure. Although there are little data linking burning coal beds and waste banks to known health problems, a possibly analogous situation exists in rural China where mineralized coal burned in a residential environment has caused widespread and severe health problems such as fluorosis and arseniasis.

Purpose -A systematic approach is needed to engage a broad range of stakeholders to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from energy use in the building sector. The purpose of this paper is to develop a systems-based bottom-up approach for this purpose, and to demonstrate its application in a case study of office building stock in the State of New South Wales (NSW) in Australia. Design/methodology/approach -A conceptual framework for the general method is developed based on a cross-typology matrix of energy consumption and supply on the one hand, and intervention schemes or policy instruments on the other. This is then tested and demonstrated using a case study of commercial office building stock, with building energy demand calculated using a validated computer energy simulation tool for a representative set of office buildings within a local government area (LGA). The energy consumption and associated GHG emissions are then aggregated up from LGA to the whole State. The impact projections of different intervention schemes are compared and mapped spatially across the State. Findings -Results have demonstrated the significance and capability of the proposed approach, in allowing quantitative comparisons of the relative effectiveness of a specific set of regulatory, technical and behavioral scenario settings on the spatial distribution and trends in energy consumption and GHG emissions of the NSW office building stock to 2020. Research limitations/implications -Further case studies involving mixed building types and specific building types with greater granularity of modelling details, energy use and supply options, and spatial resolution are needed. Originality/value -The structured cross-typology approach is a novel contribution to bottom-up modelling approaches to designing and/or assessing the effectiveness of specific policy instruments, alone or in combination. It will enable policy makers, property portfolio owners, utility companies and building tenants to assess the broader impacts of their specific actions towards a common goal.

A tropical ombrotrophic peatland ecosystem is one of the largest terrestrial carbon stores. Flux rates of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and methane (CH 4 ) were studied at various peat water table depths in a mixed-type peat swamp forest floor in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Temporary gas fluxes on microtopographically differing hummock and hollow peat surfaces were combined with peat water table data to produce annual cumulative flux estimates. Hummocks formed mainly from living and dead tree roots and decaying debris maintained a relatively steady CO 2 emission rate regardless of the water table position in peat. In nearly vegetation-free hollows, CO 2 emission rates were progressively smaller as the water table rose towards the peat surface. Methane emissions from the peat surface remained small and were detected only in watersaturated peat. By applying long-term peat water table data, annual gas emissions from the peat swamp forest floor were estimated to be 3493 AE 316 g CO 2 m À2 and less than 1.36 AE 0.57 g CH 4 m À2 . On the basis of the carbon emitted, CO 2 is clearly a more important greenhouse gas than CH 4 . CO 2 emissions from peat are the highest during the dry season, when the oxic peat layer is at its thickest because of water table lowering.

Radiative forcing is a useful diagnostic quantity for indicating the size of climate change mechanisms, and for interpreting the results of General Circulation Model (GCM) experiments. It is also ideal for exploring the potential sensitivity of climate change simulations to assumptions regarding, for example, the horizontal and vertical distribution of changes in greenhouse gases, as a guide to whether these effects need to be incorporated into GCMs. This paper examines this issue for a range of greenhouse gases, and also examines the dependence of the forcing on horizontal averaging and the definition of tropopause position.

The rapid economic growth and the depleting fossil fuels direct the Indian economy towards renewable energy sources. Among the renewable, the most sought after technologies are nuclear energy and solar energy. The paper compares nuclear energy to solar energy to choose a more viable option, given the abundant incident solar flux. Also, the paper proposes a negative green taxation regime to aid replace the solar panels after their lifetime.

Today, over-consumption, pollution and resource depletion threaten sustainability. Waste management policies frequently fail to reduce consumption, prevent pollution, conserve resources and foster sustainable products. However, waste policies are changing to focus on lifecycle impacts of products from the cradle to the grave by extending the responsibilities of stakeholders to post-consumer management. Product stewardship and extended producer responsibility are two policies in use, with radically different results when compared for one consumer product, refrigerators. North America has enacted product stewardship policies that fail to require producers to take physical or financial responsibility for recycling or for environmentally sound disposal, so that releases of ozone depleting substances routinely occur, which contribute to the expanding the ozone hole. Conversely, Europe's Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive requires extended producer responsibili...

S2 TABLE S1. Results of TGA analyses of sorbent hydrated after CO 2 cycles a CaO carbonated (%) Sample CaO sulphated (%) Before After CaO hydrated (%) CaO unreacted (%) KR37 (75-150 μm) 29.77 4.69 10.44 50.66 9.13 KR38 (300-425 μm) 28.09 4.08 8.72 53.98 9.21 KR39 (600-750 μm) 26.59 4.86 9.60 55.76 8.05 KR40 (75-150 μm) 0.00 19.31 24.80 68.74 6.46 KR41 (300-425 μm) 0.00 14.60 18.98 70.74 10.28 KR42 (600-750 μm) 0.00 16.46 20.76 70.55 8.68 a The values of CaO sulphated were calculated on the basis of mass increment at end of sulphation step and represent the CaSO 4 /totalCaO molar ratio. The values of CaO hydrated and carbonated were calculated on the basis of mass loss in the TGA experiments, which correspond to the Ca(OH) 2 and CaCO 3 decomposition and represent the Ca(OH) 2 /totalCaO and CaCO 3 /totalCaO molar ratio, respectively. The values of CaO unreacted are calculated by difference.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has stated that stabilizing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations will require reduction of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by as much as 80% by 2050. Subnational efforts to cut emissions will inform policy development nationally and globally. We projected GHG mitigation strategies for Minnesota, which has adopted a strategic goal of 80% emissions reduction by 2050. A portfolio of conservation strategies, including electricity conservation, increased vehicle fleet fuel efficiency, and reduced vehicle miles traveled, is likely the most cost-effective option for Minnesota and could reduce emissions by 18% below 2005 levels. An 80% GHG reduction would require complete decarbonization of the electricity and transportation sectors, combined with carbon capture and sequestration at power plants, or deep cuts in other relatively more intransigent GHGemitting sectors. In order to achieve ambitious GHG reduction goals, policymakers should promote aggressive conservation efforts, which would probably have negative net costs, while phasing in alternative fuels to replace coal and motor gasoline over the long-term.

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas whose atmospheric abundance has grown 2.5-fold over three centuries, due in large part to agricultural expansion. The farming of ruminant livestock, which generate and emit methane during digestion ('enteric fermentation'), is a leading contributor to this growth. This paper overviews the measurement or estimation of enteric methane emissions at a range of spatial scales. Measurement of individual animal emissions focuses particularly on grazing livestock for which the SF 6 tracer technique is uniquely appropriate. Gaining insight into factors that influence methane production requires that feed intake and feed properties be determined, enabling the methane emitted to be expressed per unit of intake. The latter expression is commonly encapsulated in the 'methane conversion factor', Y m , an entity that enables small-scale methane emission estimates to be extrapolated to national and global enteric methane inventories. The principles of this extrapolation and sources of uncertainty are discussed, along with the significance of this global source within the global methane cycle. Micrometeorological and similar measurement techniques over intermediate spatial scales are also surveyed.

Biogas technology, besides supplying energy and manure, provides an excellent opportunity for mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and reducing global warming through substituting firewood for cooking, kerosene for lighting and cooking and chemical fertilizers. A study was undertaken to calculate (1) global warming mitigation potential (GMP) and thereby earning carbon credit of a family size biogas plant in India, (2) GMP of the existing and target biogas plants in the country and (3) atmospheric pollution reduction by a family size biogas plant. The GMP of a family size biogas plant was 9.7 t CO 2 equiv. year −1 and with the current price of US $10 t −1 CO 2 equiv., carbon credit of US

An aspect of global change currently not well understood is how processes operating on spatial scales finer than those used in recent global circulation models (GCMs) contribute to changes in atmospheric composition and the subsequent changes in climate. We use the "IPAT" formulation as a framework to test relationships among social driving forces and user group greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in northwestern North Carolina. Using regression, correlation, and bivariate mapping to examine relationships between a suite of socioeconomic variables and GHG emissions for the residential, commercial/industrial, and agricultural end-user categories, we find that various measures of population and affluence serve equally well as explanatory variables.

Combined heat and power Corn ethanol Corn stover Greenhouse gas emissions Life cycle assessment Zea mays a b s t r a c t A life-cycle assessment (LCA) of corn ethanol was conducted to determine the reduction in the life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for corn ethanol compared to gasoline by integrating biomass fuels to replace fossil fuels (natural gas and grid electricity) in a U.S. Midwest dry-grind corn ethanol plant producing 0.19 hm 3 y À1 of denatured ethanol. The biomass fuels studied are corn stover and ethanol co-products [dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS), and syrup (solubles portion of DDGS)]. The biomass conversion technologies/systems considered are process heat (PH) only systems, combined heat and power (CHP) systems, and biomass integrated gasification combined cycle (BIGCC)

A small fraction of the naphtha diluent used for oil sands processing escapes with tailings and supports methane (CH 4 ) biogenesis in large anaerobic settling basins such as Mildred Lake Settling Basin (MLSB) in northern Alberta, Canada. Based on the rate of naphtha metabolism in tailings incubated in laboratory microcosms, a kinetic model comprising lag phase, rate of hydrocarbon metabolism and conversion to CH 4 was developed to predict CH 4 biogenesis and flux from MLSB. Zero-and first-order kinetic models, respectively predicted generation of 5.4 and 5.1 mmol CH 4 in naphtha-amended microcosms compared to 5.3 (±0.2) mmol CH 4 measured in microcosms during 46 weeks of incubation. These kinetic models also predicted well the CH 4 produced by tailings amended with either naphtha-range n-alkanes or BTEX compounds at concentrations similar to those expected in MLSB. Considering 25% of MLSB's 200 million m 3 tailings volume to be methanogenic, the zero-and first-order kinetic models applied over a wide range of naphtha concentrations (0.01-1.0 wt%) predicted production of 8.9-400 million l CH 4 day À1 from MLSB, which exceeds the estimated production of 3-43 million l CH 4 day À1 . This discrepancy may result from heterogeneity and density of the tailings, presence of nutrients in the microcosms, and/or overestimation of the readily biodegradable fraction of the naphtha in MLSB tailings.

... In addition, waste glass seemed to positively contribute to the mortar micro-structural properties resulting in an evident improvement of its mechanical performance [Corinaldesi et al. 2005a]. Mixed colored glass can be utilized in flowable self-compacting slurry or concrete [Naik ...

At the present stage, economic research on climate change and its main problem requires in-depth scientific study and analysis of various factors. An important source of air pollution is the energy sector, especially solid and liquid fuels used for technological purposes in thermal power plants. In Georgia, 1/5 of the total electricity generated is produced in thermal power plants. The article analyses Greenhouse gas emissions in Georgia by sectors and sub-sectors as well the criteria for estimating fuel combustion, such as net calorific value of fuel and carbon content standard indicators. The formula for calculation of CO2, CH4 and N2O emissions from the transport vehicles is developed in this work.

An important criterion for bioenergy systems evaluation is their greenhouse gas mitigation potential. Sugarcane bioenergy systems are able to produce grid-bound surplus electricity but also have net CO2 emissions associated with the upstream fossil-fuel consumption for plantation management, transportation and processing of the ÿbrous biomass. However, when compared to coal-based power generation systems, sugarcane bioenergy systems are able to avoid CO2 emissions at rates that range between 1.081 and 1:137 kg CO 2 =k Wh depending on the cane-residue utilisation strategy adopted. As a consequence, sugarcane bioenergy systems stand out as promising energy projects for funding under the Kyoto Protocol's proposed clean development mechanism and joint implementation.

Climate predictions from four state-of-the-art general circulation models (GCMs) were used to assess the hydrologic sensitivity to climate change of nine large, continental river basins (Amazon, Amur, Mackenzie, Mekong, Mississippi, Severnaya Dvina, Xi, Yellow, Yenisei). The four climate models (HCCPR-CM2, HCCPR-CM3, MPI-ECHAM4, and DOE-PCM3) all predicted transient climate response to changing greenhouse gas concentrations, and incorporated modern land surface parameterizations. Model-predicted monthly average precipitation and temperature changes were downscaled to the river basin level using model increments (transient minus control) to adjust for GCM bias. The variable infiltration capacity (VIC) macroscale hydrological model (MHM) was used to calculate the corresponding changes in hydrologic fluxes (especially streamflow and evapotranspiration) and moisture storages. Hydrologic model simulations were performed for decades centered on 2025 and 2045. In addition, a sensitivity study was performed in which temperature and precipitation were increased independently by 2 • C and 10%, respectively, during each of four seasons. All GCMs predict a warming for all nine basins, with the greatest warming predicted to occur during the winter months in the highest latitudes. Precipitation generally increases, but the monthly precipitation signal varies more between the models than does temperature. The largest changes in the hydrological cycle are predicted for the snow-dominated basins of mid to higher latitudes. This results in part from the greater amount of warming predicted for these regions, but more importantly, because of the important role of snow in the water balance. Because the snow pack integrates the effects of climate change over a period of months, the largest changes occur in early to mid spring when snow melt occurs. The climate change responses are somewhat different for the coldest snow dominated basins than for those with more transitional snow regimes. In the coldest basins, the response to warming is an increase of the spring streamflow peak, whereas for the transitional basins spring runoff decreases. Instead, the transitional basins have large increases in winter streamflows. The hydrological response of most tropical and mid-latitude basins to the warmer and somewhat wetter conditions predicted by the GCMs is a reduction in annual streamflow, although again, considerable disagreement exists among the different GCMs. In contrast, for the high-latitude basins increases in annual flow volume are predicted in most cases.

Methanogenesis provides a means of H 2 disposal and a mechanism to maintain low partial H 2 pressure in the rumen, a prerequisite for efficient ruminal fermentation. As methanogens possess stringent requirements for cultivation, only a few species have been successfully isolated from the rumen and cultured. Culture independent molecular based approaches have provided new insight into the diversity, prevalence and role of methanogens within the overall rumen microbial community. In addition, recent developments in next generation sequencing technology have enabled the ruminal microbial community to be investigated at a metagenomic level, providing information to explore the structure, function and metabolic diversity of microbial communities. This review summarizes existing molecular technologies utilized in studies of ruminal methanogens by outlining their advantages and limitations, and introduces future applications of next generation sequencing approaches for studying the ecology of ruminal methanogens. These approaches could provide new understanding of the mechanisms of methanogenesis, as well as interactions of methanogens with other members of the rumen microbial community. An understanding of the fundamental role of methanogens in ruminal CH 4 production would provide insight into methods of curtailing emissions of this greenhouse gas from ruminants.

What lessons for policy makers at national and international level can be drawn from the growing experiences of reconciling development and climate change? The key to achieving this is to approach the problem from the development perspective, since that is where in most countries the priority lies. Current knowledge on how to realize the benefits of such an integrated approach is assessed. The focus is on the main national development priorities, such as poverty reduction, disaster reduction, rural development, energy supply and transportation. Barriers and promising approaches are identified, based on the experience gained in several countries. The potential is explored for enhancing the global impact of such integrated approaches through replication of national experiences, supported by international organizations. Opportunities for large-scale initiatives are considered at national or regional level. The role of international agreements in fostering integrated development and climate policies is analysed, showing opportunities for achieving large co-benefits for addressing climate change by making use of existing policy frameworks for development and going beyond the UNFCCC framework.

Anaerobic digestion is an appropriate technique for the treatment of sludge before final disposal and it is employed worldwide as the oldest and most important process for sludge stabilization. In general, mesophilic anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge is more widely used compared to thermophilic digestion. Furthermore, thermal pre-treatment is suitable for the improvement of stabilization, enhancement of dewatering of the

The effects of climate change on marine fisheries can be either mitigated by global action on greenhouse gas emission, or managed by encouraging appropriate adaptation. While fishers will autonomously adjust their activities in response to climate change, fisheries management systems may also need to be changed to facilitate adjustment. Identifying the scope of these management changes require some understanding of the impacts of climate change in the absence of any management changes. In this paper, we estimate the climate-related economic impact on Australian marine fisheries and associated sectors for the year 2030, ceteris paribus, based on expected biophysical changes to the resource and using an Input-Output model to capture impacts on the broader economy. Despite considerable uncertainties surrounding potential changes to the biological productivity of capture fisheries, the results suggest that most Australian fisheries and their related sectors could benefit from climate change. Appropriate adaptations could further enhance the benefits and reduce the losses to the fisheries investigated.

This article argues that, except in California, environmental justice considerations have not received sufficient attention in climate change policy debates. It explores the environmental justice implications of emerging domestic climate change policies and provides policymakers with specific suggestions on how to integrate environmental justice concerns. The article begins by introducing the environmental justice movement and its central principles, and then

Over a 3-years period, the CO 2 , N 2 O and CH 4 fluxes exchanged with the atmosphere were studied in an upland semi-natural grassland site which was divided at the start of the experiment in two large paddocks continuously grazed by cattle. The soil at the site is an Andosol with high organic matter content. The intensively managed paddock was supplied with mineral N fertilizer and was grazed at a target sward height of 6 cm. The extensively managed paddock received no N fertilization and was stocked at half the stocking density of the intensive paddock. The net ecosystem exchange of CO 2 was continuously measured in each paddock using the eddy covariance technique. Nitrous oxide emissions were measured fortnightly in both paddocks using static chambers. Methane emissions by the grazing cattle were measured four times per year in each paddock using the SF 6 tracer method. Averaged across the 3 years, the two paddocks were net sinks of atmospheric CO 2 (97 and 75 g CO 2 -C m À2 year À1 in the intensive and extensive treatments, respectively). Taking into account the LW gain of the cattle and the C loss through methane emissions, the net C storage was estimated at 87 and 69 g C m À2 year À1 in the intensive and extensive treatments, respectively. Emissions of nitrous oxide and methane reduced by 89 and 55% the atmospheric sink activity of the intensive and extensive treatments, respectively. The average greenhouse gas (GHG) balance across the 3 years was À10 and À31 g CO 2 -C equivalents in the intensive and extensive treatments, respectively. However, the net biome productivity (NBP) and GHG sink activities increased over time in the intensive grazing treatment, whereas they declined after 1 year in the extensive treatment, possibly as a result of a reduced nitrogen status of the vegetation. It is concluded that the suppression of fertilizer N supply combined with a strong reduction in grazing pressure may not be able to increase in the short term the GHG sink per unit land area of managed grasslands. #

Sustainable use of solid residues and carbon dioxide, the two largest and most important waste products from thermal processes, is an urgent issue both for the industry involved and society as a whole, considering the financial and environmental repercussions of their production. This Knowledge Platform focuses on three types of waste-to-product valorisation: production of a carbon sink, construction materials, or sorbents. Thermal processes are widely applied in metals and cement production, waste incineration, etc. They produce major amounts of solid waste materials, such as slag and fly ash, and generate a vast amount of carbon dioxide. Mineral carbon sequestration in alkaline waste materials is a feasible solution because of high reactivity, on-site production, waste stabilization and low cost. Turning waste into construction materials is another route for transforming low-cost input materials into potentially high-value products. The production of a sorbent for wastewater and flue gas treatment is another promising industrial option for in-house treatment of waste streams. A successful approach requires a broad consortium with relevant expertise for the scientific investigation, but which at the same time can be easily tailored to a particular valorisation option that emerges. The Platform aims at this dual objective by bringing together all parties and by focusing on the challenging aim of valorising thermal process wastes into high-value products by intensified processes and with clear prospects on the economic and legislative feasibility, ecological benefits and societal relevance.

The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions embodied in 61 different categories of food are used, with information on the diet of different groups of the population (omnivorous, vegetarian and vegan), to calculate the embodied GHG emissions in different dietary scenarios. We calculate that the embodied GHG content of the current UK food supply is 7.4 kg CO 2 e person À 1 day À 1 , or 2.7 t CO 2 e person À 1 y À 1 . This gives total food-related GHG emissions of 167 Mt CO 2 e (1 Mt¼ 10 6 metric tonnes; CO 2 e being the mass of CO 2 that would have the same global warming potential, when measured over 100 years, as a given mixture of greenhouse gases) for the entire UK population in 2009. This is 27% of total direct GHG emissions in the UK, or 19% of total GHG emissions from the UK, including those embodied in goods produced abroad. We calculate that potential GHG savings of 22% and 26% can be made by changing from the current UK-average diet to a vegetarian or vegan diet, respectively. Taking the average GHG saving from six vegetarian or vegan dietary scenarios compared with the current UK-average diet gives a potential national GHG saving of 40 Mt CO 2 e y À 1 . This is equivalent to a 50% reduction in current exhaust pipe emissions from the entire UK passenger car fleet. Hence realistic choices about diet can make substantial differences to embodied GHG emissions.

Goal definition and scoping: identifying the LCA's purpose and the expected products of the study, and determining the boundaries (what is and is not included in the study) and assumptions based upon the goal definition Life-cycle inventory: identifying and quantifying the energy and raw material inputs and environmental releases associated with each stage of production Impact analysis: assessing the impacts on human health and the environment associated with energy and raw material inputs and environmental releases quantified by the inventory Improvement analysis: evaluating opportunities to reduce energy, material inputs, or environmental impacts at each stage of the product life-cycle

The Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC) Otway Project in Australia is the first heavily monitored pilot site for CO 2 storage in a depleted natural gas reservoir. With the site characterisation and risk analysis complete, the new CRC-1 injection well was drilled in April 2007. An updated static and dynamic model forecast an injected gas transit time of between 4 and 8 months between CRC-1 injection and Naylor-1 observation wells. Injection began on March 18th 2008 and was halted on August 29th 2009 with 65,445 tonnes of CO 2 mixed gas stored. Two pulses of tracer compounds were added to help identify the injected CO 2 from other naturally occurring CO 2 and to track dispersion and diffusion. Assurance monitoring included surveillance of the atmosphere, soil gas and shallow groundwater. To date, no tracer compounds have been detected above background levels in samples taken as part of the assurance monitoring system. Monitoring of the reservoir has been accomplished with a combined geophysical and geochemical approach. Formation fluids are sampled at pressure with the multilevel U-Tube system. The transient geochemistry at the observation well has: (1) recorded injected gas arrival at the Naylor-1 observation well; (2) recorded tracer compound arrival at Naylor-1; (3) shown a mixing trend between the isotopic signature of the Naylor indigenous CO 2 and that of the injection supply gas; and (4) provided an estimate for the dynamic storage capacity for a portion of the Naylor reservoir. The data collected are compared with the pre-injection dynamic model forecasts and provide a means of calibration. The CO2CRC Otway Project has successfully demonstrated the storage of CO 2 in a depleted gas field. Geochemical assurance monitoring and reservoir surveillance will continue post injection. Continued analysis of the data will serve to reduce uncertainty in forecasting long term fate of the injected CO 2 mixed gas.

Southeast Asia enjoyed, until recently, one of the fastest economic growth in the world. This economic growth has caused both a surge in energy demand and a degradation of environmental resources in the region. Modern biomass cogeneration technologies can help to satisfy increasing energy needs while preserving the environment. This study presents estimates of the change in air emissions that would be associated with wide spread adoption of modern biomass cogeneration technologies by the food and agro-industries in Indonesia, Malaysia, The Philippines and Thailand. Results suggest that wide spread adoption of biomass cogeneration technology would result in a signiÿcant reduction in both greenhouse gas and criteria pollutant emissions.

Over the past three decades, numerous Late Holocene-long tree-ring (TR) chronologies have been developed for different parts of Europe that allow archaeological, historical and cultural wood remains to be dated with annual precision. Ironically, palaeoclimatic evidence inherent in such composites is limited as modern updates essential for calibration/verification with instrumental measurements are often inappropriate, incomplete or even missing. Here we proposes a novel approach to updating historical TR records while preventing statistical over-fit with the target data and advocate 'horizontal' splitting between historical (early) and recent (modern) TR samples prior to their standardization (detrending). This split-technique will help to overcoming unprecedented effects of increased atmospheric greenhouse-gas, biospheric fertilization, forest management, sample replication, age-structure and chronology development associated with modern proxy updates.

a b s t r a c t An innovative refrigeration system incorporating phase change material (PCM) is proposed to maintain refrigerated trucks at the desired thermal conditions. The advantage of using PCM to maintain low temperatures is that a conventional refrigeration system does not have to be located on-board the vehicle. In addition, the system consumes less energy and produces much lower local greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The phase change thermal storage unit (PCTSU) is charged by a refrigeration unit located off the vehicle when stationary. The PCM is discharged and provides cooling when in service. A new PCM with a lower cost than currently available PCMs was developed, suitable for maintaining the refrigerated truck at a temperature of À18°C. The PCM has a melting temperature of À26.7°C and a latent heat of 154.4 kJ kg À1 . A prototype system was constructed and test results proved that the proposed refrigeration system is feasible for mobile transport. An analysis shows that delivery of refrigerated products can be made with a PCM system having a weight comparable to that of an on board conventional refrigeration system with less than half of the energy cost.

Carbon accounting Estimation method Greenhouse gas emission inventories Harvested wood products Production approach Stock-change approach Uncertainty analysis a b s t r a c t There is a great diversity of methods for estimating carbon storage in harvested wood products (HWP) and, therefore, it is extremely important to agree internationally on the methods to be used in national greenhouse gas inventories. This study compares three methods for estimating carbon accumulation in HWP: the method suggested by Winjum et al. (Winjum method), the tier 2 method proposed by the IPCC Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (GPG LULUCF) (GPG tier 2 method) and a method consistent with GPG LULUCF tier 3 methods (GPG tier 3 method). Carbon accumulation in HWP was estimated for Portugal under three accounting approaches: stock-change, production and atmospheric-flow. The uncertainty in the estimates was also evaluated using Monte Carlo simulation. The estimates of carbon accumulation in HWP obtained with the Winjum method differed substantially from the estimates obtained with the other methods, because this method tends to overestimate carbon accumulation with the stock-change and the production approaches and tends to underestimate carbon accumulation with the atmospheric-flow approach. The estimates of carbon accumulation provided by the GPG methods were similar, but the GPG tier 3 method reported the lowest uncertainties. For the GPG methods, the atmospheric-flow approach produced the largest estimates of carbon accumulation, followed by the production approach and the stock-change approach, by this order. A sensitivity analysis showed that using the ''best'' available data on production and trade of HWP produces larger estimates of carbon accumulation than using data from the Food and Agriculture Organization.

Understanding the upward motion of CO 2 droplets or CH 4 bubbles in oceanic waters is prerequisite to predict the vertical distribution of the two most important greenhouse gases in the water column after these have been released from the seabed. One of the key parameters governing the fate of droplets or bubbles dissolving into the surrounding seawater as they rise, is the terminal velocity, u T. The latter is strongly influenced by the ability of both compounds to form skins of gas hydrate, if pressure and temperature satisfy thermodynamic framework conditions. Experimental efforts aiming to elucidate the rise properties of CO 2 droplets and CH 4 bubbles and specifically the influence of hydrate skins open the possibility to obtain a parameterization of u T applicable to both hydrate-coated and pure fluid particles of CH 4 and CO 2. With the present study, we report on experimentally determined terminal velocities of single CH 4 bubbles released to pressurized and temperature-regulated seawater. Hydrate skins were identified by high bubble sphericities and changed motion characteristics. Based on these experiments as well as published data on the rise of hydrate-coated and pure liquid CO 2 droplets and physical principles previously successfully used for clean bubbles near atmospheric pressures, a new parameterization of u T is proposed. Model predictions show a good agreement with the data base established from the laboratory-based measurements.