Functional Morphology

Howler monkeys (genus Alouatta) display a distinctive cranial architecture characterized by airorhynchy (or retroflexion of the facial skeleton on the cranial base), a small braincase, and a posteriorly oriented foramen magnum. This configuration has been associated with distinct factors including a high folivory diet, locomotion, and the presence of a specialized vocal tract characterized by large hyoid bone. However, the morphological relationships between the facial and neurocranial blocks in Alouatta have been scarcely investigated. In this study we quantitatively analyzed the cranial shape variation in Alouatta seniculus, to evaluate possible influences and constraints in face and braincase associated with airorhynchy. We also considered the structural role of the pteric area within the cranial functional matrix. We applied landmark-based analysis and multivariate statistics to 31 adult crania, computing shape analyses based on 3D coordinates registration as well as the analysis of the Euclidean distance matrix to investigate patterns of intraspecific morphological variability. Our results suggest that allometry is the main source of variation involved in shaping cranial morphology in howlers, influencing the degree of facial proportions and braincase flattening, and generating the main sexual differences. Larger individuals are characterized by a higher degree of airorhynchy, neurocranial flattening, and expansion of the zygomatic arch. Allometric variations influence the skull as a whole, without distinct patterns for face and braincase, which behave as an integrated morphological unit. A preliminary survey on the pteric pattern suggests that the morphology of this area may be the result of variations in the vertical growth rates between face and braincase. Future studies should be dedicated to the ontogenetic series and focus on airorhynchy in terms of differential growth among distinct cranial districts.

Abstract Sauropod dinosaurs were the largest terrestrial
herbivores and pushed at the limits of vertebrate biomechanics
and physiology. Sauropods exhibit high craniodental
diversity in ecosystems where numerous species coexisted,
leading to the hypothesis that this biodiversity is
linked to niche subdivision driven by ecological specialisation.
Here, we quantitatively investigate feeding behaviour
hypotheses for the iconic sauropod Diplodocus. Biomechanical
modelling, using finite element analysis, was used to
examine the performance of the Diplodocus skull. Three
feeding behaviours were modelled: muscle-driven static biting,
branch stripping and bark stripping. The skull was found to be
‘over engineered’ for static biting, overall experiencing low
stress with only the dentition enduring high stress. When
branch stripping, the skull, similarly, is under low stress, with
little appreciable difference between those models. When simulated for bark stripping, the skull experiences far greater
stresses, especially in the teeth and at the jaw joint. Therefore,
we refute the bark-stripping hypothesis, while the hypotheses
of branch stripping and/or precision biting are both
consistent with our findings, showing that branch stripping
is a biomechanically plausible feeding behaviour
for diplodocids. Interestingly, in all simulations, peak
stress is observed in the premaxillary–maxillary ‘lateral
plates’, supporting the hypothesis that these structures
evolved to dissipate stress induced while feeding. These
results lead us to conclude that the aberrant craniodental
form of Diplodocus was adapted for food procurement
rather than resisting high bite forces.

The feeding mechanism of gars (Ginglymodi : Lepisosteidae) is characterized by cranial elevation and lower jaw rotation but minimal cranial kinesis. Gar jaws have numerous, sharply pointed, elongate teeth for capture of evasive prey. Their mandibles range from relatively short to extremely long depending on the species. Jaw length and lever dimensions were hypothesized to affect the biomechanics of force and motion during feeding, according to simple mechanical models of muscles exerting force through first-or third-order levers. A morphometric protocol was used to measure the jaw structure of seven living and five fossil species of gar and these data were used to calculate the mechanical advantage (a measure of force transmission) for both opening and closing of the mandible. Gars were found to possess low mechanical advantage (MA) and high transmission of motion, although gars occupy a range of biomechanical states across the continuum of force vs. velocity transmission. The longnose gar, Lepisosteus osseus, has one of the lowest jaw closing MAs (0.05) ever measured in fishes. Intraspecific lever mechanics were also calculated for a developmental series (from feeding larvae to adults) of L. osseus and Atractosteus spatula. A characteristic ontogenetic curve in MA of the lower jaw was obtained, with a large decrease in MA between larva and juvenile, followed by a steady increase during adult growth. This curve correlates with a change in prey type, with the small, robust-jawed individuals feeding mainly on crustaceans and insects and the large, long-jawed individuals of all species becoming mainly piscivorous. Principal components analysis of functionally important morphometrics shows that several gar species occupy different regions of functional morphospace. Some fossil gar species are also placed within functional morphospace using this approach. J. Morphol. 000: 000 -000, 2005.

Flower visiting beetles possess numerous structural adaptations of their mouthparts to adhere and ingest pollen grains. Using a Cryo-SEM approach the examination of the mouthparts in rapidly frozen Cetonia aurata (Scarabaeidae) indicates a previously unknown technique of pollen uptake in Coleoptera. Cryo-SEM micrographs of the mouthparts reveal a fluid covering the bristles on the buccal surface. In this way the bristles of the galeae form a wet brush which represents the primary organ of pollen uptake. The fluid improves adhesion of pollen to bristles lacking any specialized adhering surface or highly sculptured cuticle as present in other pollen feeding Coleoptera. The well developed mola region of the otherwise non-biting mandibles of C. aurata indicates that these beetles open pollen grains mechanically before ingestion. Examination of gut content demonstrated that crushed and intact pollen occur in all regions. The Cryo-SEM method represents a new approach to study functional morphology including the interaction of microstructures and fluids on cuticular surfaces of insects.

The anatomy of the New Zealand tuatara has been examined extensively by anatomists and palaeontologists because it represents the only living member of the Rhynchocephalia, a group of reptiles that were successful during the time of the dinosaurs. The tuatara is also of interest because of its specialized teeth and a forward chewing stroke that it uses to rip food apart. However, despite several detailed descriptions of the skull, there has been little work on how the individual bones of the skull fit together. Here we provide the first joint by joint ...

This article reviews the fundamental principles of the finite element method and the three basic steps (model creation, solution, and validation and interpretation) involved in using it to examine structural mechanics. Validation is a critical step in the analysis, without which researchers cannot evaluate the extent to which the model represents or is relevant to the real biological condition. We discuss the method's considerable potential as a tool to test biomechanical hypotheses, and major hurdles involved in doing so reliably, from the perspective of researchers interested in functional morphology and paleontology. We conclude with a case study to illustrate how researchers deal with many of the factors and assumptions involved in finite element analysis.

The chuckwalla, Sauromalus obesus, avoids predation by wedging itself in a rock crevice and inflating its lungs beyond their normal inspiratory volume. Buccal and pulmonary pressures were recorded in S. obesus during defensive inflation and wedging. Maximum pulmonary pressure generated during defensive wedging was significantly higher and was achieved faster than that of nonwedging inflation. During inflation and wedging, S. obesus forces air into the lungs by pulsatile contraction of the buccal cavity. Buccal pulse pumping is an ancestral ventilation behavior of vertebrates that S. obesus uses for defensive inflation.

Written for non-specialists, this detailed survey of dinosaur origins, diversity, and extinction is designed as a series of successive essays covering important and timely topics in dinosaur paleobiology, such as "warm-bloodedness," birds as living dinosaurs, the new, non-flying feathered dinosaurs, dinosaur functional morphology, and cladistic methods in systematics. Its explicitly phylogenetic approach to the group is that taken by dinosaur specialists. The book is not an edited compilation of the works of many individuals, but a unique, cohesive perspective on Dinosauria. Lavishly illustrated with hundreds of new, specially commissioned illustrations by John Sibbick, world-famous illustrator of dinosaurs, the volume includes multi-page drawings as well as sketches and diagrams. First edition Hb (1996): 0-521-44496-9 David E. Fastovsky is Professor of Geosciences at the University of Rhode Island. Fastovsky, the author of numerous scientific publications dealing with Mesozoic vertebrate faunas and their ancient environments, is also scientific co-Editor of Geology. He has undertaken extensive fieldwork studying dinosaurs and their environments in Montana, North Dakota, Arizona, Mexico, and Mongolia. David B. Weishampel is a professor at the Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution at Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine. Weishampel is best known for discovering, researching, and naming several rare European dinosaur species. During the 1980s Weishampel gained fame for his work with American paleontologist Jack Horner and later named the famous plant-eating, egg-laying Orodromeus, Horner. Now, a decade after his pioneering studies with Horner, Weishampel is most widely known for his current work on the Romanian dinosaur fauna. He is the author and co-author of many titles, including The Dinosaur Papers, 1676-1906 (Norton, 2003); The Dinosauria, (University of California, 1990); and Dinosaurs of the East Coast, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).

English: The current study focuses on the grammatical category of person inherent to personal pronouns in Russian and Bulgarian. Even though some Bulgarian parts of speech (mostly verbs, for example) have significant differences in comparison with Russian ones, the systems of
meanings of the Bulgarian and Russian pronomina personalia function in a similar way. Additionally, the subject of examination is the set of categorial and non-categorial meanings of the grammatical category of person. The two semantic types are invariably connected but the emphasis is put on the manifestations of non-categoriality. Bulgarian serves as a background to Russian empirical data, and the main approach used is a comparative one. The main goal is to explain and describe the ways in which the non-categorial meanings of person function in Russian. For this purpose, fi rst categorial meanings are examined and then non-categorical ones are reviewed.

Russian: Объектом настоящего исследования является грамматическая категория лица, присущая личным местоимения в русском и болгарском языках. Несмотря на то, что у некоторых классов слов в болгарском языке (например, у глагола) наблюдаются значительные различия в категориях по сравнению с русским языком, системы значений болгарских и русских pronomina personalia функционируют схожим образом. Предметом исследования являются категориальные и некатегориальные значения категории лица местоимений. Эти два семантических типа неразрывно связаны друг с другом, но акцент делается на проявлениях некатегориальности. Болгарский язык имеет статус языка фонового сопоставления с русским эмпирическим материалом, а основной метод работы – сопоставительный. Основная цель исследования – объяснить и описать случаи функционирования некатегориальных значений лица в русском языке. В связи с этим сначала рассматриваются категориальные значения, а потом и некатегориальные.

Representatives of Dermaptera probably have the most unusual hind wing venation and folding pattern among insects. Both correlate with unusual wing folding mechanics, in which folding is achieved from within the wing and unfolding is done by the cerci. In this account, the hind wings of the earwig Forficula auricularia were studied by means of bright field and fluorescence microscopy. Resilin, a rubber-like protein, was revealed in several, clearly defined patches. It occurs dorsally in the radiating veins, but ventrally in the intercalary vein. This distribution determines the folding direction, and resilin is the major driving mechanism for wing folding. Resilin stores elastic energy in broadened vein patches and along the folds. At the other locations, the mid-wing mechanism and central area, the primary function of resilin is suggested to be prevention of material failure. The arrangement of resilin patches is such that the wing cannot be unfolded from the thorax proper but must be unfolded by the cerci. In Dermaptera, the antagonistic movements of folding and unfolding are achieved in two different ways, resilin and cerci. To our knowledge this is unique.

Extinction risk varies across species and is influenced by key ecological parameters, such as diet specialization. For predictive conservation science to be effective, we need to understand extinction risk factors that may have implicated recent species extinctions. Diet and feeding behaviour of the large extinct marsupial carnivore Thylacinus cynocephalus or thylacine have long been debated. Improved understanding of the skull's biomechanical performance and its limitations in a comparative context may yield important insights. Here, we use threedimensional (3D) finite element analysis to assess aspects of biomechanical performance in the skull of T. cynocephalus relative to those of two extant marsupial carnivores with known diets that occurred sympatrically with T. cynocephalus: the Tasmanian devil, Sarcophilus harrisii, and spotted-tailed quoll, Dasyurus maculatus. Together, these three species comprised the large mammalian carnivore guild in Tasmania at the time of European settlement. The bonecracking S. harrisii produced high bite forces for its size as expected, but the stresses induced were surprisingly high. A higher proportion of cancellous bone in the skull of this osteophage may act to absorb shock but decrease rigidity and hence raise stress. A relatively high bite force and rigid skull characterized D. maculatus, which may allow them to target prey of variable sizes. Compared with S. harrisii and D. maculatus, we found that the skull of T. cynocephalus was least well adapted to withstand forces driven solely by its jaw-closing musculature, as well as to simulations of struggling prey. Our findings suggest that T. cynocephalus likely consumed smaller prey relative to its size, which may have had implications for their survival.

The more than 4,000 living species of mammal have infiltrated almost every habitat in the world. From alpine mountaintops to plains grasslands, from aerial heights to the depths of the ocean, from slender forest branches to narrow subterranean burrows, mammals occupy an extraordinary variety of substrates. Some are capable of running, swimming, or swinging at great speeds, while others creep slowly along limbs or push laboriously through the soil. The limbs of mammals reflect the diversity of their habitats (fig. 15.1). The long, slender legs and two-toed feet of the antelope allow it to survey the plains for predators and bound off at their approach. The short, muscled arms and broad, thick-clawed hands of the mole scrape through soil as the animal searches for worms and grubs. Spidery, elongated hands and fingers with webs of skin between them propel bats on their erratic chases after night-flying insects. Dense, paddlelike fins steer whales through the watery course on which they are propelled by their massive tail flukes. Limbs are crucial for mammalian locomotion, social behavior, and feeding.
The functional diversity of mammal limbs is facilitated by sometimes subtle structural differences. A small discrepancy in the proportion of one limb segment and its distal neighbor can translate into significant disparity in running speed. The position of a muscle insertion along a long bone shaft can make the difference between a mammal that can tear its way through thick turf and one that cannot. The fusion of two bones in the forearm or wrist may mean that one animal cannot turn its palm to grasp a limb as it tries to climb, while another species can easily wrap its forelimbs around a tree trunk and scamper to safety. A large part of a mammal's lifestyle can, therefore, be read in the structure of its limbs.
This chapter first reviews the anatomical structure of the mammalian limb. Some brief mention of comparative differences is made in relation to structure, but those are reserved for the most striking ones in which the number of elements differs or the structure of homologous elements is particularly diverse. Special emphasis is given to the structures that are most obviously related to function. The chapter then reviews the functional diversity of the mammalian limb from the perspective of gross ecomorphological categories, groups that are primarily locomotory in nature. The chapter then reviews aspects of variation, genetics, and development of the mammalian limb. Finally, the early evolution of the mammalian limb is reviewed.

. The biology and functional morphology of Arca noae (Bivalvia: Arcidae) from the Adriatic Sea, Croatia, with a discussion on the evolution of the bivalve mantle margin. -Acta Zoologica (Stockholm) 89 : 19-28 In the Croatian Adriatic, Arca noae occurs from the low intertidal to a depth of 60 m; it can live for > 15 years and is either solitary or forms byssally attached clumps with Modiolus barbatus. The shell is anteriorly foreshortened and posteriorly elongate. The major inhalant flow is from the posterior although a remnant anterior stream is retained. There are no anterior but huge posterior byssal retractor muscles and both anterior and posterior pedal retractors. The ctenidia are of Type B(1a) and the ctenidial-labial palp junction is Category 3. The ctenidia collect, filter and undertake the primary sorting of potential food in the inhalant water. The labial palps are small with simple re-sorting tracks on the ridges of their inner surfaces. The ciliary currents of the mantle cavity appear largely concerned with the rejection of particulate material. The mantle margin comprises an outer and an (either) inner or middle fold. The outer fold is divided into outer and inner components that secrete the shell and are photosensory, respectively. The latter bears a large number of pallial eyes, especially posteriorly. The inner/middle mantle fold of A. noae , possibly representative of simpler, more primitive conditions, may have differentiated into distinct folds in other recent representatives of the Bivalvia.

Detailed descriptions of tongue morphology of members of Squamata that refer to functional implications other than food processing are rare. Herein we focus on the morphology of the dorsal epithelium and internal structure of the tongue of the Leopard Gecko, Eublepharis macularius, emphasizing the foretongue and its relation to fluid uptake. We employ both scanning electron microscopy and serial histology to examine the morphology of the entire tongue, its component regions, and its situation in the oral chamber. We recognize five distinct morphological regions of the dorsal tongue surface, each of which is distinctive both morphologically and histologically. The foretongue bears papillae quite different in structure and spacing from those of all other tongue regions, and these non-glandular structures are involved in gathering and transporting fluid from the environment. Fluid unloaded from the foretongue in the region of the vomeronasal sinus is channeled through the network of cuboidal papillae and directed towards a pair of compartments lateral to the tongue in which fluid pools during a drinking bout. This allows the dorsal surface of the mid-and hind-tongue, which are involved in food processing and manipulation, to be largely segregated from the pathway of fluid flow. We relate our findings to descriptions of the tongue of other taxa, and propose functional hypotheses for the observed morphology. This study provides new anatomical information upon which future studies of the functional morphology of the buccal apparatus in the Gekkota can be based.

11 th International Conference on Natural Language Processing (NLP 2022) is a programmed approach to analyze text that is based on both a set of theories and a set of technologies. This forum aims to bring together researchers who have designed and build software that will analyze, understand, and generate languages that humans use naturally to address computers. Authors are solicited to contribute to the Conference by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in the areas of Natural Language Processing.

This book is a text directed to those individuals interested in the function and evolution of mammalian teeth, with a special emphasis on factors involved in food selection particularly among the varying primates species. The purpose of the book is to provide information and current hypotheses on the evolution of human dentition and the craniofacial complex.

Having a multifaceted complex structure, language is a combination of a pile of mental states or thoughts which are transferred by means of shared rules or principles created on the grounds of phonology, morphology, and semantics. Language, being such a humanly and complicated formation, is highly in touch with a group of pertinent scientific zones like psychology and sociology, and this interaction may mirror the morpho-syntactic features of people. That is to say, selecting and forming any word, structuring a full sentence, and seeing the meaning of the sentence necessitate intricate rules or phases. With respect to this phenomenon, intricate mental or cognitive processes might be challenged in second language learning which means picking up the syntactic rules of a language and converting these rules into language skills. In this study, ten Syrian children, being educated in a primary school and owning different psychological schemas, as well as being not at similar ages, were in...

Bu makale kısaca Türkçe'de görevi olan, ancak fonetik yapıya sahip olmayan boş morfemleri (/-Ø/) ve onların cümle içindeki görev ve özelliklerini ele almaktadır. Makalenin kaleme alış nedeni, şimdiye kadar bu konuda ayrı bir çalışma yapılmamış olmasıdır. Bu konuda mevcut bilgilerin bir yerde verilmesi, morfoloji ve morfosentaks açısından çok gerekliydi. Türkçe zengin bir fonksyonel morfolojiye sahip olduğu için, boş morfemler Türkçe'nin ayrı bir özelliğini de gün ışına çıkarmaktadır.

Despite previous investigations, the function of the forked morphology of asaphid trilobite hypostomes is enigmatic. The focus of this study is the large and robust forked hypostome of the largest known genus of trilobite, Isotelus, and the independently-derived forked hypostome of Hypodicranotus, the longest hypostome relative to body size of any trilobite. Although the trilobite hypostome is analogous to the labrum in other arthropods, forked hypostomes lack an obvious modern functional counterpart. The Isotelus hypostome is distinguished from other trilobite hypostomes by closely-spaced terrace ridges on a greatly thickened inner surface of the forked posterior margin, with the scarp of the terrace facing antero-ventrally. This is compatible with a grinding function, suggesting possible limb differentiation to complement this structure. The inner face of the tine (one of the two, prominent, sub-parallel posterior projections) is also unique in that it has a microstructure which is evident in section, running perpendicular to the surface. Macropredatory and filter-feeder roles are ruled out, and previous characterizations of the hypostome as knife-like or serrated are rejected. Its function is incompatible with that of other non-asaphid trilobites with forked hypostomes, like the remopleuridid Hypodicranotus, which lack similar terrace ridges and thickened inner-edge cuticle. □Arthropoda, Asaphida, ecology, functional morphology, Trilobita.

The illaenid trilobite Vysocania is widely represented in the Upper Ordovician of the Czech Republic, Portugal and Spain, and is one of the most characteristic taxa in the high-latitude peri-Gondwana palaeobiogeographical region to which it is endemic. Three species of the genus that were formerly assigned to Stenopareia and Zetillaenus, from the Czech Republic and Spain respectively, are herein revised, and a new species is described from the Czech Republic. The genus Octillaenus, of which a new species is described from the Upper Ordovician of Morocco, is considered to have arisen from Vysocania through paedomorphic (neotenic) processes. The relationships between Vysocania, Octillaenus, Stenopareia and Zetillaenus are reviewed and the criteria used in the definition of these taxa discussed. Species assigned to Vysocania are V. vaneki (type-species), V. iberica, V. moraveci sp. nov. and V. panderi; species assigned to Octillaenus are O. hisingeri (type-species) and O. marocanus sp. nov. Vysocania appears for the first time in the lower Berounian (Sandbian) and has its last undoubted record in the upper Berounian (upper Katian); Octillaenus is presently restricted to the Kralodvorian (upper Katian). •

Exceptionally preserved fossils from the Palaeozoic era provide crucial insights into arthropod evolution, with recent discoveries bringing phylogeny and character homology into sharp focus. Integral to such studies are anomalocaridids, a clade of stem arthropods whose remarkable morphology illuminates early arthropod relationships and Cambrian ecology. Although recent work has focused on the anomalocaridid head, the nature of their trunk has been debated widely.Here we describe new anomalocaridid specimens from the Early Ordovician Fezouata Biota of Morocco, which not only show well-preserved head appendages providing key ecological data, but also elucidate the nature of anomalocaridid trunk flaps, resolving their homology with arthropod trunk limbs. The new material shows that each trunk segment bears a separate dorsal and ventral pair of flaps, with a series of setal blades attached at the base of the dorsal flaps. Comparisons with other stem lineage arthropods indicate that anomalocaridid ventral flaps are homologous with lobopodous walking limbs and the endopod of the euarthropod biramous limb, whereas the dorsal flaps and associated setal blades are homologous with the flaps of gilled lobopodians (for example, Kerygmachela kierkegaardi,  Pambdelurion whittingtoni) and exites of the ‘Cambrian biramous limb’. This evidence shows that anomalocaridids represent a stage before the fusion of exite and endopod into the ‘Cambrian biramous limb’, confirming their basal placement in the euarthropod stem, rather than in the arthropod crown or with cycloneuralian worms. Unlike other anomalocaridids, the Fezouata taxon combines head appendages convergently adapted for filter-feeding with an unprecedented body length exceeding 2m, indicating a new direction in the feeding ecology of the clade. The evolution of giant filter-feeding anomalocaridids may reflect the establishment of highly developed planktic ecosystems during the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event.

The systematic affinities of several Palaeozoic skeletal taxa were only resolved when their soft-tissue morphology was revealed by the discovery of exceptionally preserved specimens. The conodonts provide a classic example, their tooth-like elements having been assigned to various invertebrate and vertebrate groups for more than 125 years until the discovery of their soft tissues revealed them to be crown-group vertebrates. Machaeridians, which are virtually ubiquitous as shell plates in benthic marine shelly assemblages ranging from Early Ordovician (Late Tremadoc) to Carboniferous, have proved no less enigmatic. The Machaeridia comprise three distinct families of worm-like animals, united by the possession of a dorsal skeleton of calcite plates that is rarely found articulated. Since they were first described 150 years ago machaeridians have been allied with barnacles, echinoderms, molluscs or annelids. Here we describe a new machaeridian with preserved soft parts, including parapodia and chaetae, from the Upper Tremadoc of Morocco, demonstrating the annelid affinity of the group. This discovery shows that a lineage of annelids evolved a dorsal skeleton of calcareous plates early in their history; it also resolves the affinities of a group of problematic Palaeozoic invertebrates previously known only from isolated elements and occasional skeletal assemblages.

External morphology (eidonomy) of marine creatures, developed by the evolution process over the course of millions of years, plays a crucial role in their locomotion and swimming performance. In this paper, hydrodynamic impacts of the cephalofoil tip eidonomy (tip bump) in the eye bulb region of a scalloped hammerhead shark, Sphyrna lewini, are studied with the aid of computational fluid dynamics (CFD). In this regard, two separate geometries are designed here; one corresponding to the real geometry of the hammerhead shark's cephalofoil with a tip bump (eye bulb region) and another one, a modified version with a flat tip without the aforementioned bump. Turbulent flows encountered in the problem are simulated using the Lam-Bremhorst turbulence model at different angles of attack (AoA) and a sideslip angle, at high Reynolds number, 10^6 , corresponding to the swimming of a juvenile hammerhead shark with a speed of 1 m/s. The results show that the strength (circulation) of the wing tip vortices reduces by the external geometry of the hammerhead's cephalofoil tip; in this sense, 'cephalofoil tip' with its unique morphology behaves as a winglet.

FORMS BUILD WITH CONSECUTIVE DOUBLE PRIVATIVE MARKERS IN TURKISH:
EXAMPLES FROM THE TURKISH NATIONAL CORPUS (TNC)

ABSTRACT

Privative marker for verbs in Turkish is the suffix /-mA/. One of the basic rules in Turkish
morphology is that two suffixes with same phonetic structure and with same function cannot be used
consecutively, side by side.
This paper discusses the /-mAz/ participle marker, consisted of /-mA/ privative marker and
the /-r/ aorist marker’s /-z/ variant in the negative, and the /-mA/ privative marker that comes before it.
Turkish National Corpus (TNC) is used as a source for this research.
As a result of the researches made on TNC, it is concluded that the /-mA/ + /-mAz/ markers
cannot be present at the end of the words. Thereby, this paper contains the results of the research made
on TNC of the /-mA/ + /-mAz/ + /-lİk/ structure.

Keywords: corpus linguistics, Turkish corpus, privatives, double privatives, morphology.

The article discusses some of the terms that are in the basis of A. V. Bondarko’s functional grammar theory. Additionally, a presentation is made of the properties of categorical meanings in the language system and of non-categorical meanings in speech, of the essence of the private and the additional meanings as well. The publication traces the evolution of A. V. Bondarko’s ideas about the essence of these grammatical abstractions.

В настоящей статье рассматриваются некоторые проблемы грамматической семантики в зеркале теории функционально-семантической грамматики А. В. Бондарко. Объектом особого наблюдения являются такие понятия, как категориальное и некатегориальное значение, частное значение, дополнительное значение и т.д. В данном исследовании делается попытка системного описания принципов соотносительности этих понятий.

The notorious jaws of the white shark Carcharodon carcharias are widely feared, yet poorly understood. Neither its bite force, nor how such force might be delivered using relatively elastic cartilaginous jaws, have been quantified or described. We have digitally reconstructed the jaws of a white shark to estimate maximum bite force and examine relationships among their three-dimensional geometry, material properties and function. We predict that bite force in large white sharks may exceed c. 1.8 tonnes, the highest known for any living species, and suggest that forces may have been an order of magnitude greater still in the gigantic fossil species Carcharodon megalodon. However, jaw adductor-generated force in Carcharodon appears unremarkable when the predator’s body mass is considered. Although the shark’s cartilaginous jaws undergo considerably greater deformation than would jaws constructed of bone, effective bite force is not greatly diminished.

In this paper, inspired by the external morphology of a manta ray (Mobula alfredi), four chimerical wing planforms are designed to assess its gliding performance. The planforms possess an arbitrary combination of extra hydrodynamic features including tubercles at the leading edge (L.E.) and trailing edge (T.E.) inspired by humpback whale's flippers and flukes, respectively, as well as longitudinal ridges inspired by whale shark's eidonomy. In addition, another planform is designed to investigate the possible effects of manta ray's injuries (geometric deficiency) generated by predator's attacks or boat strikes on its locomotion (gliding) performance. In this regard, turbulent flow physics involved in the problem is numerically simulated at different angles of attack (AoA). High Reynolds number, 10^6, corresponding to the swimming of a juvenile manta ray at an average speed equals 1 m/s. The results show that the manta ray-inspired planform with L.E. undulations exhibits a superior performance at high AoAs than its other counterpart variants. In addition, the results demonstrate that injuries on the manta ray's body can noticeably modify hydrodynamics and, as a result corresponding hydrodynamical forces and moments acting on the swimming animal in the gliding phase.

Bornean orangutan mandibular morphology has been functionally linked to the exploitation of hard and tough foods, based on evidence that Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii spends a greater percentage of time feeding on bark, seeds and vegetation compared with Pongo abelii (Sumatran orangutans) and the assumption that these tissues are more challenging to process than fruit pulp. We measured and compared toughness (R) and Young's modulus (E) of ripe and unripe foods exploited by P. abelii and P. p. wurmbii. Additionally, we recorded and compared the percentage of time these orangutans fed on plants/ plant parts of varying degrees of R and E. Compared with P. abelii, P. p. wurmbii consumed significantly tougher and more displacement limited (R/E)0.5 fruit parts, leaves and inner bark, and spent a signifi- cantly greater percentage of time feeding on immature leaves, unripe fruit and other vegetation. Modulus did not vary as expected between species, likely because we failed to capture the high-end range of modulus values for tissues consumed by P. p. wurmbii. Notably, P. p. wurmbii spent ~40% of its feeding time on the toughest foods consumed (between 1000 and 4000 J m!2). Thus, the hypothesis that mandibular robusticity in P. p. wurmbii is functionally linked to feeding on tough foods is supported and is likely related to countering relatively larger external forces and/or repetitive loads required to process the toughest tissues. The importance of elastic modulus on morphological divergence awaits future studies capturing the full range of this material property for P. p. wurmbii. Finally, phenophase and fruit availability influence orangutan species differences in food material properties and percentage of time spent feeding on various foods, emphasizing the importance of incorporating these variables in future studies of feeding ecology and craniodental morphology in extant taxa.

In this paper, Lagrangian coherent structure (LCS) concept is applied to wake flows generated in the up/down-stream of a swimming nematode C. elegans in an intermediate Re number range, i.e., 250-1200. It materializes Lagrangian hidden structures depicting flow transport barriers. To pursue the goals, nematode swimming in a quiescent fluid flow environment is numerically simulated by a two-way fluid-structure interaction (FSI) approach with the aid of immersed boundary method (IBM). In this regard, incompressible Navier-Stokes equations, fully-coupled with Lagrangian deformation equations for the immersed body, are solved using IB2d code. For all simulations, nematode's body is modeled with a parametrized spring-fiber built-in case available in the computational code. Reverse von-Kármán vortex street formation and vortex shedding characteristics are studied and discussed in details via LCS approach, including grid resolution, integration time and Reynolds number effects. Results unveil presence of different flow regions with distinct fluid particle fates in the swimming animal's wake and formation of so-called 'mushroom-shaped' structures in attracting LCS identities.