Function Theory

In this article, we give an explicit solution to the nonstandard H" problem which includes the Optimal Robust Disturbance Attenuation Problem (ORDAP) and the Two-Disc Problem. Our solution depends on an interplay between function theory, Banach space duality and operator theory. The solution depends on an operator which is analogous to the Sarason o p erator for the standard H m problem. This operator allows to quantify the optimal performance of feedback systems and provides an explicit formula for the optimal controller. The nonstandard H" problem is perhaps the simplest control problem which deals with significant plant uncertainty. Surprisingly, relatively little work has been done on it despite the large number of papers in the H" control literature.

Terminological equivalence is one of the central issues in translation. To secure equivalence in translations for special purpose languages, the translator has to structure the terms of a given text by reference to a conceptual system and thus identify-independently for both the source and target languages-the conceptual system in which a specific term is embedded. Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries are indispensable tools for any translator. However, due to the importance of the conceptual systems in specialised-language translation, a specialised dictionary has to fulfill higher requirements than general dictionaries. As a matter of fact, a dictionary suitable for specialised-language translation should follow an onomasiological rather than a semasiological approach to lexicography. In this paper, the author studies the basic requirements for a bilingual dictionary that is intended to be of practical use for specialised-language translation, taking a user's perspective when discussing the problem of equivalence between terms in two languages. This is based on selected concepts taken from the field of accounting (IAS/IFRS and national accounting rules) that are translated from German to Spanish and vice versa. While the dictionaries examined are generally well prepared, the study shows that none of them includes information necessary to a translator for ensuring a correct translation. Keywords special-language translation terminological equivalence conceptual system bilingual or multilingual dictionaries onomasiological vs. semasiological approach lexicography accounting IAS/IFRS

It is a truth universally acknowledged that a legal translator must be in want of a good bilingual law dictionary. The legal universe and legal usage is highly culture-bound, making communication across jurisdictional boundaries difficult. Each country has its own legal system that has been developed and structured so as to suit its social and cultural environment, and the language used in legal communication reflects the structure of the legal system. As no two countries have identical legal structures and languages, a good bilingual dictionary-which mediates between the relevant terminology, textual conventions and linguistic structures-has priority among those who translate legal texts between the two languages and cultures involved and those who make bilingual law dictionaries. The main purpose of the book is to analyse three fundamental aspects concerning the writing of the Czech-English Law Dictionary with Explanations published by the author in 2001. The book focuses on a bilingual special-purpose dictionary treating a not widely spoken language and law (Czech) on the one hand and Anglo-American systems of law on the other. At the structural level the

This paper focuses on the role dictionaries play in a translation situation. This role is analysed in terms of the tenets of the Function Theory of Lexicography, which proposes that users do not have needs in general but punctual needs in specific situations. For example, translators of accounting texts need insertable equivalents whose meanings and language behaviour are clearly described. Furthermore, translators also need contextual data on domain-specific consensual usage. The construction of the Accounting Dictionaries and Diccionarios de Contabilidad reveals that the Function Theory offers theoretical and practical solutions for constructing dictionaries that target user needs in a precise way (Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp, 2014). For example, two recent accounting dictionaries, the Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción and Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción de Frases y Expresiones, offer precise dictionary data for disambiguating the meaning o...

This paper focuses on the role dictionaries play in a translation situation. This role is analysed in terms of the tenets of the Function Theory of Lexicography, which proposes that users do not have needs in general but punctual needs in specific situations. For example, translators of accounting texts need insertable equivalents whose meanings and language behaviour are clearly described. Furthermore, translators also need contextual data on domain-specific consensual usage. The construction of the Accounting Dictionaries and Diccionarios de Contabilidad reveals that the Function Theory offers theoretical and practical solutions for constructing dictionaries that target user needs in a precise way (Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp, 2014). For example, two recent accounting dictionaries, the Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción and Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción de Frases y Expresiones, offer precise dictionary data for disambiguating the meaning o...

A dictionary is written and designed for a specific addresse (user group). Primary considerations in this respect are users' profiles and the special needs of the user group (Bergenholz and Nielsen 2006). User needs are inevitably linked to the knowledge level of potential readers, who have a situational context and engage in activities, which can be facilitated by lexicographic data. Such information significantly affects both the micro and macrostructural design of the lexical resource, and is directly related to Wiegand's conception of genuine purpose (Wiegand 1998:52). These theoretical parameters dealing with users' profiles, users' needs and use situation should necessarily be reflected in the way information is packed in lexicographical entries, i.e. in the way definitions are organized and structured. This article examines how LSP dictionaries deal with this issue. The example chosen is the term aquifer. After a brief overview of how this term appears in current dictionaries, we show how it is represented in MarcoCosta, a frame-based lexical resource that facilitates the acquisition of specialized knowledge. * This research is part of the project MARCOCOSTA: Marcos de conocimiento multilingüe para la gestión integrada de las zonas costeras (P06-HUM-01489), funded by the Andalusian Regional Government.

Advanced information tools using modern technologies that filter information to address individual needs are not necessarily easy to develop or easy to use. This paper emphasises the importance of both usability evaluation and information literacy, by looking at a case study of an e-dictionary that was developed using modern technology to tailor information to address only specific needs. The e-dictionary is a prototype developed based on modern lexicographical theory and uses advanced search and display options. These options allow a user to receive only information that is relevant to a specific situation. A heuristic evaluation and usability tests were done on the e-dictionary. The findings showed that not all users found the advanced search and display options easy to use.

Traditional dictionaries offer curated data to users. Users should therefore be able to find the correct data to solve their information need. However, users don't necessarily know the exact scope of lexicographic information. Dictionary articles can still demand considerable interpretation by the user to select the appropriate meaning or equivalent. In the e-environment, users can easily navigate between different e-sources. This is especially evident on various e-book platforms, where one can link multiple dictionaries and other sources to a text or search of the internet. Internet content is obviously not curated, and providing access to such data is therefore anathema to the traditional lexicographer. A traditional dictionary is the result of an application of data pushing procedures. The online environment enables the use of data pulling procedures that give users access to both curated and non-curated data. These issues are illustrated by means of a number of examples that show that a large number of different and disparate information sources are easily available to the user to satisfy any specific information need, and that the dictionary is one of a plethora of information sources. The information is therefore available on demand, without risking information overload. It is argued that, when optimising a network of information tools that constitutes a comprehensive search universe, the information retrieval structure should preferably have a circular network as application domain, rather than a linear continuum.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify criteria according to which e-dictionaries can be evaluated. Information technology can be used to enhance e-dictionaries, but if not done carefully, information tools that completely overwhelm a user with irrelevant information can be developed. Criteria are necessary according to which e-dictionaries can be developed and evaluated to ensure tools that only provide relevant information on demand. Design/methodology/approach A literature review was conducted to identify trends in lexicography and modern information technology. Previous usability studies were considered to identify key usability issues. The information was synthesised to identify a set of criteria. Findings It was found the e-dictionaries should be evaluated according to their content, information architecture, navigation, access (searching and browsing), help, customisation and use of other innovative technologies. Originality/value A comprehensive set of criteria has...

This article follows current research on English for Specific Business Purposes, which focuses on the analysis of contextualized business genres and on identifying the strategies that can be associated with effective business communication (Nickerson, 2005). It explores whether free internet dictionaries can be used for promoting effective business communication by presenting a detailed analysis of the definitions and encyclopedic information associated with three business terms that are retrieved from YourDictionary.com, and BusinessDictionary.com. Our results indicate that these two dictionary structures can be very effective for acquiring business knowledge in cognitive use situations. Hence, this paper makes a case for presenting free internet dictionaries as adequate tools for guiding instructors and learners of Business English into the new avenues of knowledge that are already forming, which are characterized by an interest in continuous retraining, especially in the field of ESP where both teachers and students have to deal with areas of knowledge with which they might not be very familiar.

In some situations, you need information in order to solve a problem that has occurred. In information science, user needs are often described through very specific examples rather than through a classification of situation types in which information needs occur. Furthermore, information science often describes general human needs, typically with a reference to Maslow's classification of needs (1954), instead of actual information needs. Lexicography has also focused on information needs, but has developed a more abstract classification of types of information needs, though (until more recent research into lexicographical functions) with a particular interest in linguistic uncertainties and the lack of knowledge and skills in relation to one or several languages. In this article, we suggest a classification of information needs in which a tripartition has been made according to the different types of situations: communicative needs, cognitive needs, and operative needs. This is a classification that is relevant and useful in general in our modern information society and therefore also relevant for information science, including lexicography.

We use two different frameworks to calculate the electrostatic potential created by a uniformly charged disk in its plane. We first implement a standard direct integration approach and carry out the calculations to the extent possible while keeping them simple. We then apply a different method that relies on Bessel function transformations. This method allows us to derive compact analytic expressions for the electrostatic potential in terms of complete elliptic integrals of the first and second kind. By comparing the results obtained through the application of the two different approaches, we uncover interesting transformation formulas and novel mathematical identities that might be of interest to a broad range of researchers in mathematical and physical sciences.

This article describes the theoretical foundation of the accounting dictionaries as well as its practical results. Furthermore, the implementation of the project shows how the constant interaction of lexicographical theory with practical dictionary work over a period of 10 years has led to lexicographical development and adaptation resulting in ongoing adjustments to the dictionaries and their theoretical foundation. This is exemplified by studying the transition from polyfunctional to monofunctional dictionaries in an attempt to provide help in several types of usage situations, typically in communicative situations, e.g. when reading, writing or translating English, Danish or Spanish accounting texts, or cognitive situations, i.e. when users want to know more about accounting matters or accounting language. The article also indicates that the creation of this project connects e-lexicography with the knowledge-based economy. Lexicographers work in the cloud being physically thousands of kilometres away; they work with experts in accounting, databases and the Internet with the aim of constructing and updating a high-quality tool with relatively low information costs for users. Finally, this article shows that the future of lexicography rests on designing, constructing, and updating information tools that take into consideration not only the true nature of lexicography but also the possibilities of the Internet and its technologies, as advocates of the Function Theory of Lexicography do on a regular basis.

This chapter situates the concept of ESP within the Spanish university context, which is characterised by diversity. This means that ESP instructors must re-adapt the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP to the Spanish teaching and learning environment. A possible way to do this is to instruct learners in the use of free online dictionaries, which are information tools that are accessible through the Internet with or without paying a fee. These tools are especially adequate for gaining knowledge, such as the concepts and conceptual framework scaffolding a domain. Within this framework, this chapter illustrates a way to use using free online dictionaries for gaining knowledge. This consists of two stages: first, the use of a template that includes 10 characteristics for deciding on the adequacy of the dictionaries to be used and, second, the recommendation of two specific types of dictionaries for gaining knowledge. The implementation of both stages allowed me to propose the use of collaborative dictionaries, such as Wikipedia and/or specialised dictionaries, to assist ESP learners to gain knowledge of specific domains.

This contribution deals with a new digital English-Spanish-English lexicographical project that started as an assignment from the Danish high-tech company Ordbogen A/S which signed a contract with the University of Valladolid (Spain) for designing and compiling a digital lexicographical product that is economically and commercially feasible and can be used for various purposes in connection with its expansion into new markets and the launching of new tools and services which make use of lexicographical data. The article presents the philosophy underpinning the project, highlights some of the innovations introduced, e.g. the use of logfiles for compiling the initial lemma list and the order of compilation, and illustrates a compilation methodology which starts by assuming the relevance of new concepts, i.e. object and auxiliary languages instead of target and source languages. The contribution also defends the premise that the future of e-lexicography basically rests on a close cooperation between research centers and high-tech companies which assures the adequate use of disruptive technologies and innovations.

Integrated dictionary portals such as the Diccionarios Valladolid-UVa are reference tools prepared by the same team and equipped with Dictionary Writing Systems that consists of editors, databases, Web interfaces, management tools, and a kind of dictionary grammar which specifies a common structure for all the dictionaries of the portal. They were designed and are being constructed by the joint efforts of lexicographers, IT and domain experts, and a language technology Danish company. The project started in the year 2014, initially following Bergenholtz's works in several commercially oriented Danish dictionaries. It has now been accommodated to new lexicographic insights and technological developments, and is on the road to "producing" around 28 integrated dictionaries as well as specific search devices, e.g. for searching Spanish Americanisms or specific translations of specific expressions. The project is based on the tenets of the Function Theory of Lexicography, Christensen's concept of disruptive innovation, and assumptions on the economic potential of lexicographic data. For reasons of space and target readership, this paper will be mostly concerned with presenting the concept of typological individualization, i.e. offering specific data types for specific user types in specific situation types.

The concept of dictionary vision is frequently used when we speak about lexicography. Since the late 1980s, we have been witnesses to the consolidation of lexicography as an academic discipline, which, fi rstly, has helped in compiling better dictionaries meant to fulfi l the needs of specifi c user groups, and, secondly, has focused its object of study on dictionaries. As always happens in any academic discipline, lexicography has also been subject to different controversies regarding its nature, methods of works, objectives, etc. The different theoretical approaches to dictionaries are usually present in any lexicography conference, symposium, workshop, etc. They are also found in this volume, a collection of papers discussed at the Twelfth International Symposium on Lexicography celebrated at the University of Copenhagen, April 29-May 1, 2004. The volume presents 19 selected papers covering a wide fi eld within lexicography: (i) online lexicography; (ii) dictionary structure; (iii) phraseology in dictionaries; (iv) LSP lexicography; (v) etymology, history and culture in lexicography. In the Preface, Gottlieb and Mogensen indicate that the 19 papers selected, 15 of which are in English, have been anonymously peer-reviewed and selected according to quality, relevance, and variety of approaches and topics. Among them are the three plenary lectures given by Arne Zettersten, founding father of the symposium, Henning Bergenholtz and Sven Tarp, and Herbert Ernst Wiegand, who have laid the foundations for drawing the line between lexicography and other disciplines, particularly linguistics, although maintaining between them deep differences on both theoretical and practical grounds (see Bergenholtz/ Tarp 2003 for an overview). Part 1 contains three chapters concerning Online Lexicography. In Chapter 1, "reliability of online bilingual dictionaries" (3-12), Cristina Gelpí proposes a selection of main features of online bilingual dictionaries, defends that online bilingual dictionaries are specifi c products, different from printed dictionaries, and illustrates her visions with examples from online specialized bilingual English-Spanish dictionaries. She concludes that in addition to coverage, online dictionary quality can be determined by factors such as web page origin, user type, adaptation to lexicographical functions, data-accessing system, lexicographical structures, usability, permanence and updating, degree of digitalization and hypertextuality, and permeability and interaction. Annette Klosa and Carolin Müller-Spitzer deal with grammatical data in "Grammatische Angaben in elexiko und ihre Modellierung" (13-37). The project Hermes-41-11-fuertes-rev.indd 197

This paper discusses a project for the creation of a theoretical model for integrated e-dictionaries, illustrated by means of an e-information tool for the presentation and treatment of fixed expressions using Afrikaans as example language. To achieve this a database of fixed expressions is compiled wherein data are treated in such a way that access can be provided through a variety of dictionaries for specific situations, based on specific lexicographic functions, e.g. the cognitive function as well as the communicative functions of text reception and text production. From one database, the user will have access to six monofunctional dictionaries of fixed expressions. Each one of these dictionaries provides a view on selected fields of the database, i.e. a search is carried out on selected fields in the database and only the data in specific fields that are relevant for the specific dictionary are displayed. There are unique user needs that may not necessarily be satisfied by means of these six dictionaries. Individualised search facilities will therefore be provided to enable a user to retrieve data from a single data field or a user-specified selection of data fields. Phase two will provide the option of setting up a user profile, an extension of data fields and linking to external data sources. The result of the project will therefore be a comprehensive database of Afrikaans fixed expressions that may be accessed through six monofunctional dictionaries, as well as individualised search options, user profiling and the possibility to display additional data on demand.

This article describes the “Dictionary of Economics” in terms of the Function Theory of Lexicography. It defends the thesis that such information tools must be designed for assisting specific users to solve the specific needs they have in a translation situation. In particular, I will focus on the solutions offered for individualising data retrieval, which will in turn eliminate the so-called information stress or information death produced when users retrieve so much data that they cannot cope with it. This process is illustrated in two recent online dictionaries, the Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción (Fuertes-Olivera et al. 2012a) and the Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción de Frases y Expresiones (Fuertes-Olivera et al. 2012b). They are especially suitable when translating English accounting texts into Spanish. These two dictionaries are considered high quality 21st Century dictionaries, e.g., as candidates for assisting in the training of ...

Resumen: Emphasis on the functional approach to lexicography, for example the so-called Function Theory of Lexicography proposed by Bergenholtz and Tarp (2002, 2003 & 2004; see Tarp 2008 for a review), has promoted the vision that lexicography is at a crossroads where it is difficult to develop further without a thorough rethink of lexicography in general and of dictionaries in particular (Bergenholtz, Nielsen & Tarp, 2009). As the science of dictionaries, lexicography is no longer a job for amateur and occasional lexicographers; ...

In this paper we introduce the new class of generalized Volterra functions. We prove some integral representations for them via Fox-Wright H-functions and Meijer G-functions. From positivity conditions on the weight in these representations, we found sufficient conditions on parameters of the generalized Volterra function to prove its complete monotonicity. As applications we prove a Turán type inequality for generalized Volterra functions and derive closed-form integral representations for a family of convergent Mathieu-type series defined in terms of generalized Volterra functions.

This article is the written version of the Enrique Alcaraz Annual Memorial Lecture, given by the author at the University of Alicante on March 26, 2014. After a brief overview of the past and present of lexicography, it presents some of the challenges and paradoxes facing the discipline in the current transition to the digital media. Through examples from lexicographical practice it provides a vision of dictionaries as information tools and presents the core elements of a general theory covering all types of lexicographical work. Upon this basis, the article discusses principles, methods and techniques which can be applied to improve the quality of present and future online dictionaries. Finally, it presents the main concept of an online business dictionary under construction where some of these principles, methods and techniques are used in order to adapt the articles visualised on the screen to the foreseen Spanish and English users’ needs in five different situations.

With aims of protecting trade mark proprietors against commercial practices of third parties that could hinder the use of the trade mark in informing and attracting customers, negatively influence its selling power, or exploit its attractive force, the EU legislator and the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) have broadened the protection afforded under trade mark law to cover such acts. At the same time, the CJEU has sought appropriate balance between the exclusive rights of trade mark proprietors and the interests of third parties, in allowing those practices that can be deemed acceptable as part of fair competition. The author argues that, in consequence, EU trade mark law is becoming ever more an EU law of unfair competition with regard to practices that involve the use of trade marks. The article represents an attempt to explain these developments by looking at specific policy choices and decisions of the CJEU on the protection of trade marks, alongside the wider context of EU la...

Are search engines liable for trademark infringement for offering trademarks as 'keywords' to others than the trademark owner? Is the act of displaying or arranging the display of an advertisement for identical or similar goods to that of a registered trademark that has been selected and stored by an internet service provider infringing the trademark owner's exclusive right? Is the act of providing an information society service in e-commerce unlawfully encumbered by a flood of trademark complaints? The answer depends on perspective. This article discusses alternative ways of bridging grey areas between harmonizing legislation. It stops to ask whether, instead of how rights apply in new settings. It discusses the process of decision-making; i.e. how different approaches to interpretation affect different right positions. On the one hand, it considers trademarks as property that confers on the owner a right to exclude others, when harm is established. It asks what property protection entails for trademark owners, in theory and practice. On the other hand, it considers other interests explicit or implicit in legislation and weighs them against the legitimate interests of trademark owners, in new settings. It compares these approaches by using concrete examples from EU cases and concludes that there are alternative ways of bridging the gap between overlapping and conflicting directives.

This paper focuses on the role dictionaries play in a translation situation. This role is analysed in terms of the tenets of the Function Theory of Lexicography, which proposes that users do not have needs in general but punctual needs in specific situations. For example, translators of accounting texts need insertable equivalents whose meanings and language behaviour are clearly described. Furthermore, translators also need contextual data on domain-specific consensual usage. The construction of the Accounting Dictionaries and Diccionarios de Contabilidad reveals that the Function Theory offers theoretical and practical solutions for constructing dictionaries that target user needs in a precise way (Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp, 2014). For example, two recent accounting dictionaries, the Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción and Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción de Frases y Expresiones, offer precise dictionary data for disambiguating the meaning o...

This article describes the theoretical foundation of the accounting dictionaries as well as its practical results. Furthermore, the implementation of the project shows how the constant interaction of lexicographical theory with practical dictionary work over a period of 10 years has led to lexicographical development and adaptation resulting in ongoing adjustments to the dictionaries and their theoretical foundation. This is exemplified by studying the transition from polyfunctional to monofunctional dictionaries in an attempt to provide help in several types of usage situations, typically in communicative situations, e.g. when reading, writing or translating English, Danish or Spanish accounting texts, or cognitive situations, i.e. when users want to know more about accounting matters or accounting language. The article also indicates that the creation of this project connects e-lexicography with the knowledge-based economy. Lexicographers work in the cloud being physically thousands of kilometres away; they work with experts in accounting, databases and the Internet with the aim of constructing and updating a high-quality tool with relatively low information costs for users. Finally, this article shows that the future of lexicography rests on designing, constructing, and updating information tools that take into consideration not only the true nature of lexicography but also the possibilities of the Internet and its technologies, as advocates of the Function Theory of Lexicography do on a regular basis.

With the advent of learner's dictionaries, lexicographers started to pay much more attention to the inclusion of grammatical data in dictionaries (Cowie 1999). However, they tended to overestimate the user's general linguistic knowledge and used very abstract metalanguages, usually in the form of codes, to represent grammatical data, which assumed that users have a level of general linguistic knowledge that the average user cannot be expected to have. For instance, Spanish translators only receive a glimpse of grammatical ...

In the past, many researchers like Szasz, Rajgopal, Parameswaran, Ramanujan, Das, Sulaiman, have established results on products of two summability methods. In the present article, we have established a result on generalized indexed product summability which not only generalizes the result of Misra et al [2] and Paikray et al [3] but also the result of Sulaiman [7].

The contribution proceeds from the assumption that linguistic equivalence is already determined, and therefore only deals with questions of the lexicographical description of equivalent open class expressions in completely condensed dictionary articles in bilingual printed dictionaries, with the purpose of establishing a notion of lexicographical equivalence. Firstly, the most important differences between non-condensed, partially condensed and completely condensed dictionary articles are explained. In completely condensed dictionary articles, which are not natural language texts, addressing relationships are present. These relationships have a vital role in the lexicographical description of equivalent open class expressions. They are, therefore, explained in more detail. A further assumption for the development of a notion of lexicographical equivalence is the notion of semantic-pragmatic equivalence, which is therefore introduced briefly. Next, there is a stepwise development, by means of examples, of what one can understand by the notion of lexicographical equivalence. The developed notion of lexicographical equivalence can on the one hand form the point of departure for the lexicographical textualisation of semantic-pragmatic equivalence, and on the other hand it takes into consideration that the linguistic equivalence relationship has to be inferred first by the user-inaction by means of complex results of lexicographical textualisation. The developed notion of lexicographical equivalence presents a firm foundation for the optimisation of the presentation of lexicographical equivalence.

Michael Mann (Red.). Digitale Lexikographie. Ein- und mehrsprachige elek-tronische Worterbucher mit Deutsch: aktuelle Entwicklungen und Analysen . Germanistische Linguistik 223–224. 2014, VI + 280 pp. ISBN 978-3-487-15191-5. Hildesheim/Zurich/New York: Georg Olms Verlag.

This article describes the theoretical foundation of the accounting dictionaries as well as its practical results. Furthermore, the implementation of the project shows how the constant interaction of lexicographical theory with practical dictionary work over a period of 10 years has led to lexicographical development and adaptation resulting in ongoing adjustments to the dictionaries and their theoretical foundation. This is exemplified by studying the transition from polyfunctional to monofunctional dictionaries in an attempt to provide help in several types of usage situations, typically in communicative situations, e.g. when reading, writing or translating English, Danish or Spanish accounting texts, or cognitive situations, i.e. when users want to know more about accounting matters or accounting language. The article also indicates that the creation of this project connects e-lexicography with the knowledge-based economy. Lexicographers work in the cloud being physically thousands of kilometres away; they work with experts in accounting, databases and the Internet with the aim of constructing and updating a high-quality tool with relatively low information costs for users. Finally, this article shows that the future of lexicography rests on designing, constructing, and updating information tools that take into consideration not only the true nature of lexicography but also the possibilities of the Internet and its technologies, as advocates of the Function Theory of Lexicography do on a regular basis.

In the current debate about the status of lexicography there are at least three quite different opinions: (i) Lexicography does not have or need any kind of own theory but can use all relevant linguistic theories. (ii) Lexicography needs a special theory for the lexicographical praxis, but this discipline is still a part of linguistics. (iii) Lexicography is a genuine part of information science and can use theories and learn from practice in the information society, but it also needs special theories for lexicography. It is the third opinion we will maintain in this paper by discussing the information needs in the information society and partly using the function theory of lexicography.

When faced with mathematical methods, undergraduate students have difficulty in grasping the reality of various approaches and special functions. It is only when they take a more specialized course such as classical electromagnetism that they finally see the connection. A problem that we believe illustrates very well the depth and variety of methods to be employed in a realistic physics situation is the calculation of the off-axis electrostatic potential created by a single uniformly charged ring. By using two methods to solve this problem, we pedagogically show how certain special functions appear and how some interesting connections can be uncovered. Results derived by using conventional direct integration techniques (in terms of complete elliptic integrals of the first kind) are compared with solutions obtained by using a different method that starts with the integrals of Bessel functions. Comparison of the respective results uncovers an interesting transformation formula between the complete elliptic integrals of the first kind with different arguments.

This paper focuses on the role dictionaries play in a translation situation. This role is analysed in terms of the tenets of the Function Theory of Lexicography, which proposes that users do not have needs in general but punctual needs in specific situations. For example, translators of accounting texts need insertable equivalents whose meanings and language behaviour are clearly described. Furthermore, translators also need contextual data on domain-specific consensual usage. The construction of the Accounting Dictionaries and Diccionarios de Contabilidad reveals that the Function Theory offers theoretical and practical solutions for constructing dictionaries that target user needs in a precise way (Fuertes-Olivera and Tarp, 2014). For example, two recent accounting dictionaries, the Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción and Diccionario Inglés-Español de Contabilidad: Traducción de Frases y Expresiones, offer precise dictionary data for disambiguating the meaning o...

This article describes the theoretical foundation of the accounting dictionaries as well as its practical results. Furthermore, the implementation of the project shows how the constant interaction of lexicographical theory with practical dictionary work over a period of 10 years has led to lexicographical development and adaptation resulting in ongoing adjustments to the dictionaries and their theoretical foundation. This is exemplified by studying the transition from polyfunctional to monofunctional dictionaries in an attempt to provide help in several types of usage situations, typically in communicative situations, e.g. when reading, writing or translating English, Danish or Spanish accounting texts, or cognitive situations, i.e. when users want to know more about accounting matters or accounting language. The article also indicates that the creation of this project connects e-lexicography with the knowledge-based economy. Lexicographers work in the cloud being physically thousands of kilometres away; they work with experts in accounting, databases and the Internet with the aim of constructing and updating a high-quality tool with relatively low information costs for users. Finally, this article shows that the future of lexicography rests on designing, constructing, and updating information tools that take into consideration not only the true nature of lexicography but also the possibilities of the Internet and its technologies, as advocates of the Function Theory of Lexicography do on a regular basis.

Building on the assumption that translation is both a cognitive and a linguistic process, the present article aims to investigate the contribution that a cognitive approach can make to translation research, especially in the field of economics. To account for the cognitive activities underlying the mechanism of conceptualization and linguistic formulation, we shall focus on some key concepts developed in the framework of Cognitive Linguistics and Semantics (model of prototype categorization, notion of embodiment, scenes-and-frames semantics). Indeed, although economic translation is a specialized domain and therefore marked by features of exactness and terminological precision, it is not free from the problems that every translational activity entails. Economic translators can therefore profit from a linguistic-cognitive approach, integrating the lexical axis and the semantic dimension.

This article argues that the honest practices proviso should be more empirically based. Judges should focus on the efforts made by the competitor to avoid detriment to the trademark and on whether consumers perceive the potentially infringing sign differently because of these efforts. If the defendant has taken sufficient measures to minimise possible harm to the trademark owner but some confusion still exists or some advantage is taken, the use of the trademark should be allowed when these side effects are outweighed by overarching market values, such as furthering freedom of competition and enhancing consumer information and consumer choice. This conduct-based approach ensures that not only the legitimate interests of the trademark owner but also those of third parties are taken into account. In this way, trademark owners cannot prevent honest use of the trademark if the defendant has taken sufficient efforts to minimise harm, and at the same time third parties must respect tradem...

Recent developments in the commercial marketplace have rendered the classification of trademarks as mere tools for remedying information asymmetry and assuring quality inaccurate. The value of trademarks as communicative tools has increased, and they are now being used by their owners to transmit images, value propositions and associations to consumers in order to drive purchases. However, while this new function of trademarks is a reality that can hardly be ignored, finding a convincing normative justification to legally support its integration into the trademark system remains problematic. Thus, building on the normative justifications advanced by the European Union (EU) to justify extended trademark protection, this paper evaluates the dilutive harm theory, including blurring and tarnishment, in addition to the misappropriation rationale. The paper reviews EU case law in this respect and sheds light on the current muddled state of law in dealing with extended trademark protection...

This paper reports the preliminary findings of an investigation into the impact on a sample group of 100 respondents of using the book collection in two public libraries in Cape Town. It is particularly concerned with the benefits of leisure reading as measured through an impact study using a questionnaire based on generic learning outcomes as proposed by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council of the United Kingdom. These outcomes cover the following domains: knowledge and understanding; skills; attitudes or values; enjoyment, inspiration and creativity; activity, behaviour or progression. The findings are presented and discussed and the conclusion is drawn that a range of benefits were experienced and reported in overwhelming numbers by the participants in the study.

In 2011 a new bilingual Dutch Afrikaans dictionary, popularly known by the acronym ANNA, was published. The dictionary stands out mainly because of its unique macrostructure it has one amalgamated lemma list. Ease of access has become an important criterion for a user-friendly dictionary which must meet certain information needs. The aim of this research is to ascertain to what extent users found the access process in ANNA easy and satisfying while completing a task set to them in the L2 (Dutch) classroom. Questions that the research will attempt to find an answer to are: What was the search word / expression? What was the search time? What was the search route that was followed? How many search steps were necessary to find the information? Was the task completed within a time acceptable to the user? This paper will report on an empirical observation of dictionary use. The participants (5 – 8 Afrikaans students in the Dutch class) will be asked to produce five Dutch lexical items in...

The present article considers whether the confusion analysis in trademark law is at risk of being used strategically as a self-servicing mechanism by the industry to obtain trademark rights to descriptive, cultural and non-traditional signs. In this context, two features of the trademark system are particularly worrisome. First, trademark owners can strengthen the distinctive character of their marks by investing in marketing and branding campaigns. Second, trademark owners can afford expensive surveys demonstrating the high distinctiveness of their marks and strengthening their position in an infringement case. A study of 189 Dutch cases reveals that in the likelihood-of-confusion assessment, the degree of a mark’s distinctiveness and corresponding empirical findings can have a deep impact. However, the study also shows that descriptive, cultural and non-traditional signs were not often disputed. In practice, the risk of misappropriating these signs might therefore be limited. In s...

There is little doubt that lexicography has experienced important progress during the years, especially when one compare the lexicographical works from the various centuries. However, history should not be viewed as an ever-growing progress but as a process with its ups and downs. In this respect, some old lexicographical works, especially from the Age of Enlightenment, are in some aspects extremely advanced even compared with present-day dictionaries. Malachy Postlethwayt's Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce from 1774 is one such example. The article provides a general presentation of this rare and interesting dictionary which was published in various editions in the 18th century. The presentation includes a detailed description of the objective, functions, structure, and content of this impressive work. The article then focuses on its cognitive and operative functions, and the way they are integrated into one and the same reference work. Upon this basis, the article shows how modern lexicography can use past experiences in order to meet the real and practical needs of present-day users.

Este artículo trata de los diccionarios especializados de traducción. Basado en los principios de la teoría funcional, analiza las diversas fases y subfases del proceso traductivo desde una perspectiva lexicográfica mostrando que un diccionario de traducción, si realmente pretende resolver las complejas necesidades de sus usuarios, debe ser mucho más que un simple diccionario bilingüe. A continuación presenta un concepto global de diccionario de traducción que incluye diversos componentes monolingües y bilingües en ambas direcciones entre las dos lenguas en cuestión. Finalmente, el artículo debate cómo este concepto puede aplicarse en Internet con el fin de desarrollar diccionarios de traducción de alta calidad y rápido acceso a datos adaptados cada vez más a las necesidades de cada traductor.

This article is an updated and modified version of a Spanish article published in MonTi 6 (cf. Tarp 2014a). It deals with specialised translation dictionaries. Based on the principles of the function theory, it analyses the different phases and sub-phases of the translation process from a lexicographical perspective and shows that a translation dictionary should be much more than a mere bilingual dictionary if it really pretends to meet its users' complex needs. Thereafter, it presents a global concept of a translation dictionary which includes various mono-and bilingual components in both language directions. Finally, the article discusses, by means of two concrete online projects, how this concept can be applied on the Internet in order to develop high-quality translation dictionaries with quick access to data that are still more adapted to the needs of each translator. Resumen Este artículo es una versión modificada y actualizada de un artículo escrito en español y publicado en MonTi 6 (cf. Tarp 2014a). Trata de los diccionarios especializados de traducción. Basado en los principios de la teoría funcional, analiza las diversas fases y subfases del proceso traductivo desde una perspectiva lexicográfica mostrando que un diccionario de traducción, si realmente pretende resolver las complejas necesidades de sus usuarios, debe ser mucho más que un simple diccionario bilingüe. A continuación presenta un concepto global de diccionario de traducción que incluye diversos componentes mono-y bilingües en ambas direcciones entre las dos lenguas en cuestión. Finalmente, el artículo discute, mediante dos ejemplos concretos, como este concepto puede aplicarse en Internet con el fin de desarrollar diccionarios de traducción de alta calidad y rápido acceso a datos adaptados cada vez más a las necesidades de cada traductor.