Farming Systems and Cropping Systems

The reports map the flow of carbon through the Swedish Food and Agriculture System, all the way from net primary productivity to human waste and sewage. Animal feed and metabolism, food industries, import and exports, losses etc are all included.

Enhancing orphan crops productivity in developing countries is of paramount importance to providing quality diets to the growing population as well as resilience options to smallholder farmers in order to adapt to climate change. However, the status of genetic resources diversity and the utilisation patterns of many orphan crops have been poorly investigated to inform breeding programs and management strategies. In this study, we assembled Kersting’s groundnut diversity, associated farmers’ knowledge and production systems across three ecological zones in Benin and Togo. We collected data through focus group discussions in 43 villages. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 300 farmers. Four cell analyses was performed using cropping areas and number of Kersting’s groundnut farmers as criteria. We conducted a comparative analysis of the Kersting’s groundnut utilisations and production systems across ecological zones. In total, 308 accessions of Kersting’s groundnut were collected using farmers’ criteria such as grain colour, grain size, maturity time, yield potential, medicinal properties and marketability. Farmers grouped the accessions into five landraces based solely on grain colour. All landraces were cultivated in the Sudanian zone while only three of them were found in the Guinean and Sudano-Guinean zones. Most of these landraces were produced by a few farmers on small cropping areas. The choice of landraces for production depended on local intention for production and different use categories across ecological zones. Up to 46.80% of decrease in cropping areas was observed in most zones due to specific production bottlenecks such as drought and diseases. We discuss our findings and suggest tailored actions including effective in situ and ex situ conservation strategies, germplasm collection and characterization in other countries where the crop is produced, development of new cultivars with farmers’ preferred traits and enhancement of the genetic base of the species.

A study was carried out to learn about the drought pattern and its impact on rice mono cropping in Williamnagar (East Garo Hills district of Meghalaya) having rice based mono cropping system. The rainfall analysis was done based on twelve years (1998-2009) daily rainfall data to study monthly, seasonal and yearly drought of Williamnagar based on India Meteorological Department (IMD) protocols. The average annual rainfall of Williamnagar is 3246 mm with 115 numbers of rainy days. During the twelve years period no extreme and moderate drought years were experienced, but there were mild drought occurrences in nine years. The frequency of drought month recorded for the January, February, November and December was 8, 6, 7 and 10, respectively out of 12 years of record. This study revealed that for growing rain-fed rice during monsoon farmers of this region may depend on monsoon as there was hardly any drought occurrence. This study reveal that, winter rice, may needs assured irrigation, because there is fair chance of occurrence of moderate drought during November to February due to very less post monsoon rainfall.

Despite their role in soil functioning, the ecology of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, NOB, and their response to disturbances such as those generated by agricultural practices are scarcely known. Over the course of 17 months, we surveyed the potential nitrite oxidation , PNO, the abundance of the Nitrobacter-and Nitrospira-like NOB (by quantitative PCR) and the community structure of the Nitrobacter-like NOB (by PCR-DGGE and cloning-sequencing targeting the nxrA gene) in soils for four treatments: after establishment of tillage on a previously no-tillage system, after cessation of tillage on a previously tillage system, and on control tillage and no-tillage systems. Key soil variables (moisture, organic carbon content and gross mineralization – i.e. ammonification – measured by the 15 N dilution technique) were also surveyed. PNO was always higher for the no-tillage than tillage treatments. Establishment of tillage led to a strong and rapid decrease in PNO whereas cessation of tillage did not change PNO even after 17 months. PNO was strongly and positively correlated to the abundance of Nitrobacter-like NOB and was also strongly related to gross mineralization, a proxy of N-availability; in contrast, PNO was weakly and negatively correlated to the abundance of Nitrospira-like NOB. Selection of a dominant population was observed under no-tillage, and PNO was loosely correlated to the community structure of Nitrobacter-like NOB. Our results demonstrate that Nitrobacter-like NOB are the key functional players within the NOB community in soils with high N availability and high activity level, and that changes in PNO are due to shifts between Nitrospira-like and Nitrobacter-like NOB and to a weaker extent by shifts of populations within Nitrobacter-like NOB.

Ecosystem service provision in agriculture may require cooperation between farmers. Trust fosters cooperation in many economic and social interactions and is important to the success of traditional agricultural cooperatives. Little is known about how trust affects farmers' willingness to cooperate to provide an ecosystem service, what types of trust are most important, and under what conditions trust may matter. In this study, we present results of a survey of Missouri crop farmers exploring the role trust plays in farmers' stated willingness to cooperate to control pests. We find that most farmers say they are willing to cooperate, and most farmers are willing to trust others. However, we find little evidence that trust positively influences farmers' willingness to cooperate to control pests. Instead, we find that trust may only matter under certain conditions, such as when participants' farms are dissimilar, and that other determinants, such as the perceived benefit of cooperation and environmental concern, are more important than trust to farmers who are contemplating cooperation to control pests.

Background: Cocoyam is an important food security crop in Ghana because it stores better than all other root and tuber crops. Despite its socio‑economic relevance, production has declined persistently since the last decade. This study attempts to examine the profitability of cocoyam production to smallholders in Ghana by estimating the returns on critical production resources. Using a multi‑stage sampling technique, 150 cocoyam producers were ran‑ domly sampled across three major producing regions in Ghana.

Results: Empirical results reveal that cocoyam production is generally not profitable given the present cost of capital in Ghana, suggesting why farmers are shifting from its production. A disaggregated analysis reveals that producers in Fanteakwa district have a competitive advantage over their counterparts in Asante Akyem South and Asunafo North districts in terms of relative profitability owing to higher yield and better produce price at terminal markets. Gross margin, net profit, and returns on assets, land as well as unpaid labour and management significantly varied across districts. Producing cocoyam on sole crop basis was found to significantly return higher than the predominant intercropping culture of production. Apart from production cost, gross margins, net income and returns to critical production factors under the mono‑cropping system were found to be significantly higher, at 5% significance level, compared to the intercropping system.

Conclusion: The study concludes that smallholder cocoyam production is presently not profitable, and hence, pro‑ duction scales have reduced to subsistence levels. Due to higher yield and better produce prices, Fanteakwa farmers have a competitive advantage over other producing districts. Production under the mono‑cropping system is rela‑ tively profitable than under the intercropping system. However, the financial leverage of cocoyam production could be enhanced via policy alternatives directed at ensuring farmers' access to and intensification of productive inputs.

Choosing appropriate practices and policies for biofuel production requires an understanding of how soils, climate, farm types, infrastructure, markets, and social organisation affect the establishment and performance of these crops. This book highlights land-use dynamics, cultivation practices related to conversion, and wider impacts. It explores how biofuel production chain development is steered by emerging technologies and management practices and how both can be infl uenced by effective policies designed to encourage sustainable biofuel production. Also, the book highlights major biofuel production chains including: • Cane cultivation in Brazil • Corn ethanol in the USA • Wheat and rapeseed in Europe • Oil palm in the Far East • Cane in Asia and Africa • SRC and other lignocellulosic crops In each case, the development, cropping systems, and impacts are discussed; additionally , system dynamics are shown and lessons are drawn for the way things could or should change. Biofuel Cropping Systems is a vital resource for all those who want to understand the way biofuels are produced and how they impact other elements of land use and especially how improvements can be made. It is a handbook for students, biofuel producers, researchers, and policymakers in energy and agriculture. J.W.A. Langeveld holds an MS in tropical agronomy. After a career of 20 years of research in public institutions, he founded a private company for research on sustainable biomass (Biomass Research) in 2008. He is an expert on land use and cropping systems analysis. His major focus is on sustainable biomass production and its utili-sation in biofuels and biobased materials. John Dixon is Principal Adviser-Research Programmes, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. He has over 30 years of developing country experience with agricultural research and development, including cropping systems, economics and natural resource management with the CGIAR system and the FAO UN. Herman van Keulen was trained as a soil scientist and production ecologist at Wagenin-gen University. During his career, Herman was recognized internationally as a giant in his fi eld. His knowledge of crop production around the world was encyclopaedic and his readiness to share his wisdom was a constant support for many around him. Sadly, Herman passed away before the publication of the book. He will be missed dearly by his wife and two sons, and also by his former colleagues and numerous ex-students.

The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) concept reflects an ambition to improve the integration of agriculture development and climate responsiveness. It aims to achieve food security and broader development goals under a changing climate and increasing food demand. CSA initiatives sustainably increase productivity, enhance resilience, and reduce/remove greenhouse gases (GHGs), and require planning to address tradeoffs and synergies between these three pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation [1]. The priorities of different countries and stakeholders are reflected to achieve more efficient, effective, and equitable food systems that address challenges in environmental, social, and economic dimensions across productive landscapes. While the concept is new, and still evolving, many of the practices that make up CSA already exist worldwide and are used by farmers to cope with various production risks [2]. Mainstreaming CSA requires critical stocktaking of ongoing and promising practices for the future, and of institutional and financial enablers for CSA adoption. This country profile provides a snapshot of a developing baseline created to initiate discussion, both within countries and globally, about entry points for investing in CSA at scale.
• The agricultural sector in Bangladesh has grown steadily in recent years, driven by an increase in productivity and efficiency achieved through investments in improved technology and mechanization supported by conducive public policies. This has led to considerable improvements in food security as well as rural poverty reduction. 90% of this reduction in the past five years can be attributed to increased farm income.
• Agriculture in the country is characterized by subsistence production systems largely dominated by small and marginal farmers, yet a significant shift towards commercial farming with high value crops, fisheries and animal products has been evident in recent years. This is expected to contribute to further poverty reduction through improvements in health, nutrition and education outcomes in Bangladesh.
• Given its abundant water resources, rice paddy production under irrigated conditions is the top contributor to agricultural GHG emissions in Bangladesh. In an effort to reduce these emissions and other environmental impacts, farmers are increasingly applying alternative wetting and drying (AWD) methods of irrigation wetting and drying methods of irrigation, using deep placed briquetted urea fertilizer, moving to non-rice crops and incorporating straw stubbles in to rice paddies as an alternative to burning crop residues—the latter contributing to soil organic matter replenishment.
• Climate-smart agricultural strategies that address saline intrusion (up to 8 km by 2030) resulting from sea level rise and tropical storm swells are especially critical in Bangladesh where many smallholders occupy lowlying, flood prone deltas. CSA interventions can draw on traditional practices like the Sorjan system (tall beds for vegetable and crop production alternating with furrows suitable for submergence tolerant crops and fish production) as well as new practices like vertical gardens. Floating bed cultivation of vegetables in the low lying southern districts, homestead production and roof top gardening of fruits and vegetables are also spreading rapidly.
• The lack of accessible and reliable climate information among farmers represents a considerable challenge to the scaling out of CSA practices. Strengthening climate information services and making them easily accessible to farmers would greatly improve their capacity to adapt farming practices. For instance, salt intrusion into irrigation canals prevents their use for commercial or household gardening in the southern regions of Bangladesh. Knowing where and when intrusion will occur through the use of simple salinity meters would allow farmers to make crop choices and also plan for appropriate response and mitigation strategies.
• Limited financial capital for CSA investments and related activities remains a constraint for many farmers in Bangladesh. Climate index insurance models, for example, have not proven successful at scale. Microcredit has been insufficient in boosting agricultural sector growth as many CSA activities require more macro-credit (e.g. conservation machinery). However, several low risk interventions like pond excavation and ghers (paddy and aquaculture ponds with tall dikes for vegetable production) are more likely to be eligible for commercial funding. Improvements in agro-meteorological services are essential for increased private sector investment in agriculture. More information on the long-term impacts of such investments on natural landscapes is needed in order to ensure sustainability.
• New forms of CSA as well as innovative production systems finance need to be explored, including the allocation of domestic funding for priority CSA interventions and strengthening cooperation with development partners to access funds for CSA activities. At the same time, private sector engagement in impact investment initiatives holds considerable potential for advancing the CSA agenda. Creating an enabling environment for private capital will require improved coordination between the ministries involved in climate change planning in Bangladesh.

Integrated simulation models can be useful tools in farming system research. This chapter reviews three commonly used approaches, ie linear programming, system dynamics and agent-based models. Applications of each approach are presented and strengths and drawbacks discussed. We argue that, despite some challenges, mainly related to the integration of different approaches, model validation and the representation of human agents, integrated simulation models contribute important insights to the analysis of ...

This paper examines various farming systems including cereal farming, fruit cultivation and
the practice of out-of-season vegetables in the different altitudinal zones of the state of Eritrea
and suggests strategies for sustainable livelihood of the populace. The two vertical zones,
lowland and highland characterize the farming systems. Mid-slopes also have an important
role in determining the practices of agriculture, where farming is done only on the narrow
patches of the terraced fields. The highlands and mid-slopes agricultural system is
characterized by the dominance of cereal faming particularly barley, wheat and maize while
in the lowlands, groundnut and sorghum are the main crops. Irrigation facilities in the state
are negligible due to lack of perennial sources of water. Rivers are dried up during the winter
and summer. Therefore, cereals cover about 80% of the rain-fed area. Cultivating fruits
particularly banana, apple, guava and papaya and out-of-season vegetables are also practiced
in the highlands and mid-slopes but their proportion in the cultivated land is smaller, on the
one hand, and they are traditionally cultivated and domestically used on the other. The
variability in the highlands and lowlands farming system is extremely high because of
extreme variation in the climatic conditions, while the scope of expansion and modernization
of the cropped land is limited. The marginal farms have less than one ha area in the highlands
and about 2 ha area in the lowlands. Soils, except along the valley sides or some areas of midslopes,
are very poor in contents and hindrance for high yield of crops. Furthermore, lack of
infra-structural facilities in the field of agriculture does not provide a base for sustainable
livelihood. Under such circumstances, the cultivation of fruits and out-of-season vegetables is
essential because of their tremendous scope and availability of favourable environmental
conditions. Data were gathered mainly from the secondary sources. A case study of the two
farmlands (highland) to discuss the potential and input-output analysis of out-of-vegetables
and wheat crops was carried out. Observation and participatory method was used for further
interpretation of data. The study reveals that potential of cultivating out-of-season vegetables,
fruits, and cash generating products is considerably higher than traditionally cultivating
subsistence cereal crops.

The critical stages during the growth of crops are the uniform seed germination, early seedling growth, and uniform plant stand. Low crop yield is attributed to uneven seed germination and seedling growth. Therefore, the quality of seed can be improved through priming in addition to the field management techniques for better seed germination. Priming is a physiological technique of seed hydration
and drying to enhance the pregerminative metabolic process for rapid germination, seedling growth, and final yield under normal as well as stressed conditions. The primed seeds show faster and uniform seed germination due to different enzyme activation, metabolic activities, biochemical process of cell repair, protein synthesis, and improvement of the antioxidant defense system as compared to unprimed
seeds. There are many techniques of seed priming which are broadly divided into conventional methods (hydro-priming, osmo-priming, nutrient priming, chemical priming, bio-priming, and priming with plant growth regulators) and advanced methods (nano-priming and priming with physical agents). However, priming is strongly affected by various factors such as temperature, aeration, light, priming duration, and seed characteristics. This chapter highlights the priming mechanism
and the available technologies as a tool for superficial seed germination and crop stand. An experiment with reference to the importance of priming toward vigor seed germination and seedling growth was conducted, and its results have been added in this chapter.

To cope with changing climate and other environmental problems, rice production practices in the Philippines are continually changing but while there are already existing programs for farmers on proper farm management, productivity is still low. This study was therefore conducted to know the issues and concerns of farmers by looking into their management practices that include seeds and seedling transplanting, fertilizer application and pesticides application. This study was conducted in selected villages where rice farming is dominant. Personal interview (PI), focus group discussion (FGD) and key informant system (KII) were carried out to enable information sharing, analysis and action among the rice farmers. Results of the study show farming practices are continually relied on their existing knowledge acquired from families, seminars, trainings and co-farmers. A majority still believed on their own instinct, beliefs and perceptions. Because of poverty and other economic issues including most farmers are entangled with middlemen because of debts, adapting to more appropriate farm practices were not followed. Inasmuch they want to apply received knowledge from trainings, seminars it only has small influence on their farming practices.

The possibility of an agroecological transition? An analysis of the economic, ecological and institutional determinants of alternative farming practices adoption in a family farmers community in Brazil.

The aim of this thesis is to explore the issue of changes in ways of production of family farmers communities facing economic and ecological crisis. To what extent are they able to carry out a transition to more sustainable ways of production?
The thesis focuses on a rural region of Nova Friburgo (Brazil) with family farmers organized in communities. First of all, we identify the environmental, economic and institutional factors allowing family farmers to substitute agroecological practices to practices that emerged during the "green revolution".
Based on a farming systems model, we then highlight the weakening of family structures since the 1970s, both in terms of economic performances and exploitation of ecosystem services. This context facilitated the emergence of "environmental desservices" that had undermined the sustainability of these structures. In addition, the reintroduction of a full set of agroecological practices in the current family farming system does not appear as a viable economic alternative for farmers.
Using scenarios, we however show that it is possible to identify the missing capabilities of producers that would enable them to initiate basic transformations. In addition, by focusing our analysis on the community level, we show the existence of endogenous forms of coordination – institutional arrangements – which could turn the current farming system toward an agroecology-based system.

TheAgricultural subsectors are the foundation for economic growth. The battle for long-run economic growth is either won or lost in the agricultural sector. However, how this path births economic prosperity has been the subject of debates among economist and development scholars in the country. This study empirically examines the impact of agricultural sector on the economic growth of Nigeria, using time series data from 1981 to 2013. Findings revealed that real gross domestic product (RGDP); agricultural output and oil rents have a long-run equilibrium relationship. Vector error correction model(VECM) result shows that, the speed of adjustment of the variables towards their long run equilibrium path was low, though agricultural output had a positive impact on economic growth. It was recommended that, the government and policy makers should embark on diversification and enhance more allocation in terms of budgeting to the agricultural sector.Problems encountered by the agricultural subsectors were also outlined and solutions to these problems were also provided, if the government can handle these problems then we will have a positive impact of the agricultural subsectors to the economic growth of Nigeria.

in Agriculture (ICRA) "Sa pira ka adlaw maubos ang lupa kag tubig kag wara't lupa nga mabilin kag ang mga tawo sa Valderrama maagto sa America kag ang mga taga America maagto sa Valderrama" Anthony R. Tamba, I Years (One day the water wÍIl eat all the soil and nothíng will be left, and the people of Valderrama will come to America, and the Americans wiIl come to Valderrama) àCKNOWLEDGEMENT 'de wÍsh to express our sincere thanks to the farmers of the :aunicipality of Valderrama, and barrio Dugman, municipality of 3ugasong, who always were very friendly and demonstrated to llave a 1ot of patience in giving us information and proved :heir great sense of hosPita1itY. ïe are especially grateful to alI barangay captains for their strong support and warm hospitality duringi our visitlhe Governor of the province of Antique is greatly appreciated ior his visit during the workshop, and for all his supportïe also extend our gratitude to the officers and Staff of DÀ, IENR, DAR, ÀCA, ATI, NFA, NIA, AFFCUI and Land Bank and other :nstitutions involved for valuable commentS and Suggestions iuring our workshop and discussions. ïe are also thankful to the staff of the Bureau of Soils laboratory for their supPort services in analyzing our soil sàÍnp1es and aIl offÍcials whom we consulted 1n collecting :nformation in I1oi1o. lhe Staff at the municipal office of Valderrama are also greatly appreciated. ïe would like to thank the PMO staff of ÀNÏÀD, our host :nstitution, for providing all necessary logistics and iriendly support during our study period. 'de are very much thankful to the familles of EdwÍna and Oscar 3bsina for their kind hospitality during our three months stay :n Valderrarna, as well as Lydia Barco and Celina Bohol who :ade our lives very comfortable and enjoyable. Last but not least, we would also like to thank our :nterpreters Jenebeth and Joey ÀIotencio and Doreen Lagao, àS well as our driver Sohrab Vitudio for their continuous assistance without whom this study would not have been completed. lll EXECUTIIrE SIIMI,ÍÀRY 1 Objectives

This PhD in agronomy and environmental sciences, conducted under the joint supervision of UQAM and
AgroParisTech on two study areas (Paris, France and Montreal, Qc, Canada) focuses on the analysis of the
food function of a non-professional form of urban agriculture: urban collective gardens. It focuses on the
importance of this food function from the point of view of gardeners, among other functions they attribute
to the gardens, and aims to provide quantified data on gardens’ products. The premise of the thesis is a
postulate  of  coherence  between  the  functions  assigned  to  the  gardens  by  gardeners,  their  cropping
practices  and  productions  of  their  gardens.  The  thesis  aims  therefore  at  describing  these  three
components and their interrelationships. After defining the research question related to the state of the
art on urban agriculture and collective gardens, we discuss the selected methodologies that combine semi-
structured  and  structured  interviews  (questionnaires)  with  a  sample  of  gardeners  in  eight  gardens  of
Paris  and  Montreal,  field  observation  on  gardeners  cropping  practices  and  measurement  of  plots
production.  The  results  are  presented  in  four  chapters.  We  first  show  the  diversity  of  regulations  that
apply to collective gardens, and the recommendations they contained intended to frame the practices of
gardeners,  highlighting  the  conflicting  aspects  that  may  exist  from  one  regulation  to  another  or  even
within  a  regulation.  Secondly,  we  show  the  complexity  of  the  food  function  of  collective  gardens,  the
central role it plays in the motivations expressed by gardeners and its links with other functions of the
gardens. Thirdly, we describe and organize the analysis of gardeners’ cropping practices; we show that
they are varied but their consistency can be revealed by the construction of a typology. We then link this
typology  and  the  functions  assigned  to  the  gardens.  We  show  that  the  importance  given  to  the  food
function  is  correlated  to  the  intensity  level  of  practices,  even  though  gardeners  also  orientate  their
practices  in  respect  to  other  functions  they  attribute  to  the  garden.  Finally,  the  last  chapter  of  results
presents  data  on  production  levels  in  the  gardens:  we  see  varying  yields  and  highlight  one  of  the
important  determinants  of  yields,  namely  the  intensity  of  land  use.  We  conclude  on  the  importance  of
deepening  this  study  of  garden  productions  and  related  cropping  practices  after  discussing  the
methodological contributions of the thesis and the limits of our approach.

There is an intense need to optimize agrivoltaic systems. This article describes the invention of a new testing system: the parametric open source cold-frame agrivoltaic system (POSCAS). POSCAS is an adapted gardening cold-frame used in cold climates as it acts as a small greenhouse for agricultural production. POSCAS is designed to test partially transparent solar photovoltaic (PV) modules targeting the agrivoltaic market. It can both function as a traditional cold frame, but it can also be automated to function as a full-service greenhouse. The integrated PV module roof can be used to power the controls or it can be attached to a microinverter to produce power. POSCAS can be placed in an experimental array for testing agricultural and power production. It can be easily adapted for any type of partially transparent PV module. An array of POSCAS systems allows for the testing of agrivoltaic impacts from the percent transparency of the modules by varying the thickness of a thin film PV material or the density of silicon-based cells, and various forms of optical enhancement, anti-reflection coatings and solar light spectral shifting materials in the back sheet. All agrivoltaic variables can be customized to identify ideal PV designs for a given agricultural crop.

Realising the state of food insecurity and agricultural pollution in the world, rice farming has emerged as a crucial concern of socio-economic development. Rice is the staple food for more than one-half of the world’s population and rice farming provides the single largest source of the livelihood for rural Asians. Objectives of this study includes (i) the development of an essential set of indicators of sustainable rice farming (SRF); (ii) empirically assessing the sustainability of rice farming and
examining the determinant of sustainable irrigated and rain-fed rice farming; (iii) developing a model of SRF; and (iv) evaluating policy integration of human resource development (HRD) (since assessment deduced HRD is the most influential indicator) and providing means and measures to enhance HRD policy integration in rice-dominated agricultural sector. Towards the above objectives, the methodology involves developing a representative set of factors and indicators by employing an
assemblage of top-down and bottom-up approaches. Based on the four pillars of sustainability, e.g. economic, and using several statistical tools, e.g. regression, composite indices were constructed for assessing rice farming sustainability. Data were collected and cross-checked using a farm household survey and key informant interview with stakeholders, respectively from fifteen villages of three major rice growing ecosystems in Bangladesh, namely, irrigated, rainfed lowland and upland. A review of policy instruments and case study research was conducted for evaluating policy integration. Results reveal that less than half of the rice growers were sustainable in terms of economical viability, environmental soundness, and socio-political development. Categorically, Boro rice farming was found to be the most sustainable, followed by Aman and Aus rice farming. Based on the findings, a model of SRF is designed, consisting of influential indicators, strategies and goals of dimensions, drivers of a conducive policy environment as well as cultural and ethical issues. Additionally, result shows that HRD issue was fairly included in all policies and strategies and the main weakness remains in its reporting, financial arrangement and evaluation process. This study concludes that in terms of aforementioned dimensions of SRF, the majority of growers face several challenges and these will reasonably be aggravated in the context of climate change. Moreover, HRD is a key aspect for weaving sustainable farming development. Several policy inputs are drawn, e.g. investing in the generation and dissemination of resource conserving practices and technologies and mainstreaming HRD issue in planning, strategies and policies are required for promoting SRF systems, which contributes to sustainable development in Bangladesh.

How we manage farming and food systems to meet rising demand is pivotal to the future of biodiversity. Extensive field data
suggest that impacts on wild populations would be greatly reduced through boosting yields on existing farmland so as to spare
remaining natural habitats. High-yield farming raises other concerns because expressed per unit area it can generate high
levels of externalities such as greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient losses. However, such metrics underestimate the overall
impacts of lower-yield systems. Here we develop a framework that instead compares externality and land costs per unit production.
We apply this framework to diverse data sets that describe the externalities of four major farm sectors and reveal that,
rather than involving trade-offs, the externality and land costs of alternative production systems can covary positively: per unit
production, land-efficient systems often produce lower externalities. For greenhouse gas emissions, these associations become
more strongly positive once forgone sequestration is included. Our conclusions are limited: remarkably few studies report
externalities alongside yields; many important externalities and farming systems are inadequately measured; and realizing the
environmental benefits of high-yield systems typically requires additional measures to limit farmland expansion. Nevertheless,
our results suggest that trade-offs among key cost metrics are not as ubiquitous as sometimes perceived.

The study was conducted with the aim of investigating the level of female headed household farmers' participation in teff production and Soil and Water Conservation practices on teff farm plot and determinates of their participation in teff production of Abeshege woreda, SNNP, Ethiopia. A random sampling method was employed to select 164 participant and 70 non-participant households from purposively selected six Rural Kebeles sample respondents. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources using interview schedule, focus group discussion, semi-structured interview, key informant discussions, and observations. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative data were analyzed and interpreted by using descriptive statistics such as mean, range, percentage, standard deviation, t-test, chi-square and frequencies in order to draw conclusions and generalizations. The qualitative data were also analyzed and described by using qualitative methods such as narration, and generalizations. The study also employed the probit econometric model as a component of inferential statistical analysis. The study revealed that, there was a variation in the level of participation of female headed household in teff production in the study area. Further, the results of the study showed that 7.5% of the sampled respondents were under the category of low participation, 14.9% were under medium level of participation category and 62.7% of the respondents were under high participation category. The study showed that female headed household contribute 37.4% of labor for teff production and 41.6% of female headed house hold participants had a very good level of participation on soil and water conservation practices on teff producing farm plots. The estimation of the probit analysis revealed that size of family(X4), land size (X5), Average annual income (X6), and contact with development agents (X8) are significant at 1% probability levels. The implication of finding is that an increase in the level of any of the explanatory variables with positive sign i.e. in the case of marital status (X2), education level (X3), size of house hold members(X4), land size(X5) and contact with development agents(X8) have a positive effect on the participation of female headed household in teff production in the study area. According to this finding concerned body should give attention to those significant variables with care and design a better teff production strategy focusing on effective supervision, and training to enhance the female headed farmers' participation in teff production.

Gıdanın ticarileşmesi artık gıda güvenliğini tehdit ediyor. Özellikle gıda ithalatı başlı başına öncelikle çiftçiyi sonrasında tüketiciyi dört bir yanından çevirip sarmalıyor.
Artık market raflarında cici bici ambalajlarında kaplanmış, içinde ne barındırdığı belirsiz, farklı kıtalardan dev gemilerle taşınmış ürünlerle karşı karşıyayız.
Gıda ithalatı bir tek mevzuya odaklanmış durumdadır; düşük maliyetler.
Kayıplarımız ve geri döndürülemez varlıklarımız için tek bir can simidi kaldı; şehirli tüketicilerin seçimleri ve tüketmekten ileri gelen güçleri.


Ticaretin serbestliğiyle, yerel gıda üretiminin varoluşu birbirine taban tabana zıt. İpin ucu tüketicilerin ellerinde.

Tikri held up pictures of political prisoners who were in the jails of India. Today [Dec 10 2021], despite their victory over the Modi government, farmers are still occupying the protest site and demanding the release of political prisoners. Their powerful action demonstrates that the farmers are making connections between various struggles.

The establishment of perennial crops in rainfed upland areas of the dry zone is mainly constrained by the soil moisture deficit, which prevails some part of the year.  However, in home gardens, perennial crop establishment could be possible when planted them under the micro-climate created by naturally grown trees or in areas, where groundwater table is closer to the surface during most months of the year.  Therefore, an alternative strategy had to be explored to provide adequate water to the plants at their younger stage.
The NWP-DZPD Project had given an assignment to the consultant to conduct a research program with the objective of identifying a micro-scale rainwater harvesting technique, which could be adopted to support establishment of perennial plants in degraded home gardens.  The technique innovated is referred to as ‘eyebrow bund and pitcher system’ and found effective in tree establishment.  The technique was later broaden to become a system for establishment of perennial trees as a package, which included micro-scale rainwater harvesting, shade management, mulching, large planting pit to act as an expanded nutrient and moisture reserve and multi-storey tree composition.  Success of this system indicates the possibility of introducing a forest garden system as a strategy to increase the forest cover in the country.
Activities were initiated in October 1996 at the Lokahettigama village with 3 farmers as an observational study to test the feasibility of the rainwater-harvesting concept.  Analysis of the rainfall in the area provided a broad insight to the study.  With experience gained from the Lokahettigama study an improved version of the technique was tested commencing in maha 1997/98 season in 3 sites at Athurupolayagama.  Among the improvements, conversion of the pitcher shape to an oval shape, expansion of the capacity up to 10 liters, increased rate of water release, and micro-catchment management were of particular importance.
The study was extended to a level of model establishment on the request of the project.  The Yakadapotha demonstration block was established in mid October 1997.  A total number of 118 plants were established in this block, where 19 species were included to form diverse vegetation.  Whole far development works were completed before April 1998.  At present, the Yakadapotha demonstration block is functioning well, and it is recommended that farmers in other villages can visit this farm to learn the perennial crop establishment practices.
The other farm model was established at the village, Koralayagama in 1998.  Main difference between these two blocks is the plant density.  The extents of Yakadapotha and Koralayagama are 0.2 and 0.5 ha, and number of plants established was 118 and 128 respectively.  Thus, average plant densities were 17 and 39 m2 / plant.  Therefore, the Yakadapotha block could be considered as a model for intensive homestead farming while Koralayagama block as a model for rainfed mixed orchard.  Establishment of perennial tree development demonstration block at Koralayagama was completed in December 1998.  Both model farms were successfully developed and are functioning well at present.
Major outcome of the consultancy assistance is the development of a package of practices for establishment of perennial trees in the homestead.  This was demonstrated in the above two model farms.  However, both the project and the consultant agreed to establish 10 more model farms to demonstrate the technology in scattered locations within the project intervention areas.  The secondary objectives of this attempt were to facilitate the dissemination of the technology laterally at a faster rate and awareness creation among local extension officers and other progressive farmers.

Farmers' livelihood in the midlands of the northern part of Vietnam relies mainly on crop production and livestock rearing. Green manure and animal dung are commonly used for crops, particularly in rice culture -a staple food crop, and sugarcane -a cash crop. Due to the small-scale livestock systems, the animal dung is limited, which results farmers in preferring a smaller sugarcane cultivation area. This research study was to investigate and to optimize the effect of animal and green manures and their combination together with heat-compost technique on the improvement of the quality of organic manure, soil fertility and yield in three farm categories. The study revealed that the farmers in the small, medium and large farm categories should raise livestock up to 4 pigs and 3 buffaloes, 7 pig and 5 buffaloes, and 20 pigs and 13 buffaloes, respectively to match with the available resources. The optimized livestock herd holding and sugarcane cultivation area resulted in 88.7% increase of the return from livestock and 62.5% from crops in the small farm size, 25% from livestock and 9% from crops in the medium farm size and 171% from livestock while unchanged from crops in the large farm size.

The study was conducted with the aim of investigating the level of female headed household farmers’ participation in teff production and Soil and Water Conservation practices on teff farm plot and determinates of their participation in teff production of Abeshege woreda, SNNP, Ethiopia. A random sampling method was employed to select 164 participant and 70 non-participant households from purposively selected six Rural Kebeles sample respondents. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources using interview schedule, focus group discussion, semi-structured interview, key informant discussions, and observations. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative data were analyzed and interpreted by using descriptive statistics such as mean, range, percentage, standard deviation, t-test, chi-square and frequencies in order to draw conclusions and generalizations. The qualitative data were also analyzed and described by using qualitative methods s...

Field experiment was conducted for two seasons to evaluate the effects of different maize and soybean intercropping patterns on its yields and economics at Embu and Meru Counties, Kenya. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. The treatments were four maize (M)–soybean (S) intercropping patterns (conventional=1M:1S; MBILIMBILI=2M:2S; 2M:4S; 2M:6S) and two sole crops of maize and soybean, respectively. The results showed that in both sites during the both seasons the MBILI treatment produced significantly higher stover and grain yields than all other treatments. At Embu site during the both seasons, the MBILI treatment was more profitable. At Kamujine site during the 2012 LR maize sole crop was the most profitable; whereas during 2012 SR the MBILI treatment was the most profitable.