Falconry

モンゴル国西部アルタイ地域の遊牧民には，イヌワシ(Aquila chrysaetos daphanea)を鷹狩用に捕獲・馴致する伝統が受け継がれている．鷲使いたちは，巣からヒナワシ“コルバラ”を捕獲するか，成鳥“ジュズ”を罠や網で捕獲する方法でイヌワシ（雌個体のみ）を入手する．そして4 ～ 5年間狩猟を共にしたのち，性成熟を機として再び自然へと返す「産地返還」の習慣を「鷹匠の掟」としてきた．しかし近年，こうした環境共生観の伝統知は熱心に実践されているとは言い難い．一部のイヌワシの交換，取引，転売は，地域の遊牧民や鷹匠にとって「現金収入」「生活資金源」となることもある．現存のイヌワシ飼育者(n=42)へのインタビューから，1963年～ 2014年までの52 年間で入手履歴222例／離別履歴167例が特定された．しかし新規参入者の停滞に反してイヌワシ入手件数は増加する傾向にある．またイヌワシとの離別では，「産地返還」された個体は47.7%とそれほど高くはなく，「死別」「逃避」が全飼養個体の38.0%を占める．こうした結果からは，カザフ騎馬鷹狩文化がイヌワシ馴化・飼養の伝統知とともに連綿とつちかわれた自然崇拝観の継承・実践も鷲使いたちに徹底させる必要が，いま浮かび上がっている．

https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ejgeo/11/1/11_119/_pdf/-char/ja

相馬拓也（2011）モンゴル西部アルタイ系カザフ鷲使いたちの現在

《キーワード》
アルタイ山脈,　遊牧民,　バヤンウルギー,　イヌワシ,　無形文化遺産, 牧畜,　HAI,　サグサイ,　西部モンゴル,　鷹狩,　鷹匠
[Keywords]
Altai Mountains, animal-herding economy, Bayan-Ölgii, ecology, ethnic identity, ethnic minority, golden eagle, heritage sociology, transhumance, human-animal interaction, Sagsai, zoo-anthropology, Mongolia

Ancient biblical literature does not mention falconry. However, European medieval Jewish and Christian artists and commentators did depict biblical falconry. Examples are surveyed representing Jewish and Christian art of the High Middle Ages and Renaissance periods. Both Jewish and Christian art updated the biblical narrative to fit the medieval cultural environment, as well as employing different types of symbolism associated with falconry which were added to embellish the narrative. Representing Jewish art, the “First Nuremberg Haggadah” depicts Esau with a large hawk resting on his right hand; it is compared with a biblical commentary of French Jewish sages and with the Bayeux Tapestry. A young crowned Moses at Pharaoh’s court is depicted in the “Yahuda Haggadah” holding a hawk. In the “Hispano-Moresque Haggadah”, Pharaoh practices falconry at the riverside as Moses warns him of the upcoming plagues. An illustrated Provencal Jewish prayer-book includes a unique stylised manus dei, the Hand of God, with a bird resting on it, overlooking a hunting scene below.Examples from Christian art include the Crusader-era French “Morgan Bible”,
in which Absalom adopts a hawk from his group of companions as he begins a coup against King David. This iconography is compared with a contemporary and proximate iconographic motif in Jacquemart Giélée’s “Renart le Nouvel”. “Bible Moralisee” depicts the male lover of the Song of Songs with a hawk on his fist. The visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon prefigures and parallels the Adoration of the Magi in Christian thought. A falconer is found in the entourage of heretical idolaters from afar, representing the Ecclesia ex gentibus, the Church of the Gentiles.

相馬拓也（2012）中央アジアにおける騎馬鷹狩の民族考古学

《キーワード》
民族考古学、遊牧社会、鷹狩、中央アジア、天山山脈、キルギス、モンゴル西部、文化人類学、古代史、スキタイ、動物文様

《Keywords》
Ethno-archaeology, Nomadic Society, Falconry/ Hawking, Central Asia, Tienshan Mountains, Kyrgyz, Western Mongolia, Cultural Anthropology, Ancient History, Scythians, Animal Motif

Abstract

ORIENTATION:
My paper focuses on significances of the long tradition of “falconry” in East Asia. In reference to archaeological evidences, animal-herders lived in the mountainous region of Altai and Tienshan have been kept and succeeded extraordinary knowledge and arts to tame raptor, especially Golden Eagles for hunting activities since more than 3000 years ago. Through ethnoarchaeological studies, the original context of falconry with meaningful history of human-raptor cooperation is described in answer to the special theme for “Sustaining the Future”. Besides, the role of archaeologist/ anthropologist in the record and memory of intangible heritage will be also under reconsideration.
SCOPE & METHODOLOGY:
The research is based on combination of archaeological research and ethnographic interpretation. (1) Archaeological evidences of falconry lead to reconstruct a classical form of falconry in ancient East Asia. Besides, (2) Fieldworks and concentrated participant observation of contemporary Altai-Kazakh Falconry and Falconers in Bayan-Ölgii Prefecture (western Mongolia) guide to deepen understanding of falconry. Through these researches, (3) sustainability of traditional falconry for future will be scientifically endorsed from ethnoarchaeological aspects.
RESULTS:
Own ethnoarchaeological researches are gradually clarifying the reasons for supra-generational tradition of “eagle-obeyed falconry” in Mongol-Altai regions. The original form of falconry had been developed in the “nomadic” society neither royal activities nor fan-sporting game. Especially, “the horse-riding falconry” is rather practiced for actual fox-hunting in winter pasture. Besides, the number of Golden Eagles would have been stabilized due to the fact that eaglets are well tamed by local falconers. Namely, Kazakh falconers and raptor have been in coexistence and have raised each other up to exchange their utilities in traditional transhumant society. It is therefore able to suppose that to keep activating the transhumant animal-herding is the only thing to preserve/ sustain tradition of horse-riding falconry for future. 　

ENGLISH ABSTRACT
An illustrated Byzantine manuscript of the Cynegetica by Pseudo-Oppian, housed in the Biblioteca Marciana of Venice, has deserved the attention of scholarship because it contains a vast collection of zoological, mythological and hunting images that could be traced back to an original Roman model. However, a careful examination of some of its miniatures reveals details that may be better understood in a Byzantine context. This is the case of a falconry scene on fol. 2v of the manuscript. A general overview of falconry and hunting from Antiquity to the late Byzantine Empire will let us focus on every single element of hawking of the aforementioned scene. The falconer, the hound and the partridges depicted by the Byzantine miniaturist of our codex unveil that this image is not just an illustration of the text, nor a copy of an ancient model, but the representation of a widely practiced activity in the Byzantine world.
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RESUMEN ESPAÑOL
Un  manuscrito  ilustrado  de  la  Cynegetica  de  Pseudo-Opiano,  albergado  en  la  Biblioteca  Marciana  de  Venecia, ha merecido la atención de la historiografía por contener una importante colección de imágenes de zoología, mitología y caza que podrían remontarse a un modelo original romano. Sin embargo, un estudio pormenorizado de algunas de sus miniaturas revela detalles que pueden entenderse mejor en un contexto bizantino. Este es el caso de una escena de cetrería en el fol. 2v del manuscrito. Un análisis general de la cetrería y la caza desde la Antigüedad al tardo Imperio bizantino nos permitirá estudiar al detalle cada uno de los elementos de dicha escena. El cetrero, el perro y las perdices representadas por el miniaturista bizantino de nuestro códice desvelan que esta imagen no es sólo una ilustración del texto, ni la copia de un modelo antiguo, sino la representación de una actividad ampliamente practicada en el mundo bizantino.

Falconry is one of oldest human activities, goes back thousands of  years.
It is defined as ‘taking quarry in its natural state and habitat by means of trained birds of prey’. It was for centuries using wild birds of prey. Falconry is sustainable, as the numbers of birds used are small comparing to the natural mortality rates.
Protection of nests of birds of prey were amongst the oldest  conservation laws in Europe.
Falconry techniques are widely used in conservation and rehabilitation
of birds of prey. They have proved through millennia to be effective in taming birds and to keep them healthy and in good condition.
Falconers were the first to notice the decline of Peregrine numbers
in Britain and in other countries. They also started the studies to unveil the reasons for this decline. As a result DDT was banned and birds of prey  populations started to grow.
Falconers learned how to intensively breed Peregrines, the methods used later for many other birds of prey species. Large projects for the breeding and reintroduction of Peregrines were started by falconers in the USA, Canada, Germany, later also in Poland. Falconry techniques were used even in the countries where falconry was not practiced, like Sweden. Reintroduction was the only way to recover Peregrines in areas where they we extinct. Falconers in the USA organised a largest birds of prey protection organisation in the world – The Peregrine Fund.
Large crisis in vultures of Asia was also unveiled in 2004 thanks to projects financed by TPF.  The reason for the catastrophic decline of vulture populations was diclofenac. Its effect was disorder of the kidneys and rapid death, efecting in decline of even 99% by 2008. Falconers are working to restore vulture populations by breeding and reintroduction projects. Currently we see a large decline in Saker Falcon in Asia. Large studies undertaken in Mongolia by falconers have proved that at least 5 thousand Sakers are killed annually by electrocution on mid-voltage lines.
Falconers involved in conservation of huntable species. One of first large
scale programmes by falconers was the establishing of the North American Grouse Partnership in 1999. The aim of this organisation is the protection of the habitats of the North American grouse species and their sustainable use. The latest initiative of IAF is a Perdix portal, aimed at conservation of habitats of European partidge, sharing knowledge on their management and best cases of sustainable use.
Falconry is inscribed on UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Falconry today is not only hunting, but also conservation, culture and education.

This article explores the role of hunting birds in the definition of the knight in twelfth-and thirteenth-century French chivalric literature. After some introductory remarks on the identity-shaping role of hawks in the hunting practices of medieval aristocracy, the article focuses on the multi-faceted identity correlation between knights and hawks across romance and epic poems. The analysis of episodes drawn from various texts provides evidence of three levels of this human/animal relationship: the use of hawks as aristocratic and chivalric badges (Octavian, Enfances Vivien, Guillaume d'Angleterre​); the use of hawks as visual doubles of knights (​ Anseÿs de Metz​ , Erec et Enide, Lai de ​ Yonec); the representation of the link between knight and hawk as a flow of actions and values going in both directions of the human/animal divide (Jean Renart's ​ L'Escoufle​). Through this analysis, the study demonstrates that chivalric literature established between knights and hawks a multi-layered and twofold identity shift, which contributed to convey the ambiguities of the knightly ethical model.

In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the Middle Ages and early Modern period, various types of hunting had a very large impact on the mundane life of the rulers' estate. In addition, hunting was used as means of political communication. The same was practiced throughout Western Europe at the time. It is little wonder that the ruler of the grand Duchy of Lithuania had special hunt officers for different types of hunting. In the 15 th century, hawking was very popular among the mighty of Western Europe and it was a widespread " fashion " in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as well. The position of the great falconer (cокольничий, sokolniczy, lt. sakalidininkas) in the court of the grand duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was very elite. It is important to note that usually great falconers worked on their own and did not submit to great hunters' authority. Great falconer organized and supervised the economy of hunting birds. During the royal hunts they coordinated their actions with the ruler and the great hunter. The analysis of this topic is based on diverse sources, including data from account books, noblemen's recollections, letters. Moreover, a lot of important information is found in regulations, inventories, officers' registers, judicial cases, and privileges contained in the Lithuanian Metrica books. These small or even Falconry-its influence on biodiversity and cultural heritage Urszula Szymak and Przemysław Sianko (editors)

Falconry has been practiced in China for nearly two thousand years, but its early history is obscured by a lack of visual, textual, and archaeological materials. Falconry first appears in visual and textual records dating to the Eastern Han dynasty (A.D. 25-220). Although the standard histories offer few details about the practice of falconry at this time, a growing number of excavated tomb reliefs provide information regarding the possible genesis of the sport. I first discovered this imagery when looking for representations of activities associated with foreigners in hunting scenes depicted in Eastern Han tombs from Shaanxi and Shanxi. In scenes of the hunt from this region, mounted falconers are depicted alongside mounted archers, figures that are connected in Han visual and textual sources with Northern nomadic pastoralists. This imagery immediately prompted a number of questions: when the practice began, who practiced falconry, and whether or not it was associated with foreigners at this time. This article is an outgrowth of research based on these initial questions. Focusing on Eastern Han depictions of falconry, I first examine where and how falconry was practiced in ancient China and what types of birds were used. I will then argue that the sport was originally learned by the Chinese from nomadic pastoralists living to the north of Han China. Finally, I will examine Han attitudes towards the sport, suggesting that although it may have originally been associated with nomadic pastoralists, in Eastern Han texts, falconry was connected with activities char- acteristic of a misspent youth.

So far, the best documented archaeological traces of falconry from the Norwegian Viking Age (800–1050 AD) come from the ship burial at Gokstad, dated to about 900 AD. Written Sources indicate that falcon-catching was also established in Norway in that period. From the Middle Ages (1050–1537 AD), bones from goshawks and sparrowhawks have been discovered in the cities of Bergen, Konghelle and Oslo. In addition, a falcon hood, a glove and bones of birds of prey were found at
the archbishop’s seat in Trondheim. According to royal diplomas, the Norwegian kings of the 12th to 14th centuries played an important role in falcon-catching in Norway and Iceland. Gyrfalcons were
status gifts to kings in their gift-exchange network but there was also a considerable free market for birds of prey. The church was a major actor in the falcon trade too. When the Norwegian King Håkon
VI died in 1380, Norway and Denmark were eventually united under the Danish monarchy. Without a king or a nobility to engage in falconry, the skill seems to have disappeared from Norway but the
catch continued. The latter is first and foremost associated with cabins whose inhabitants, with the help of decoys/bait, caught falcons. According to Edvard Barth’s excavations, such constructions in the
high mountains date back to the 16th century. In that period of time, falcon-catching reappeared in written sources and the Dutch were at the forefront. In the course of the second half of the 18th century,
interest in falconry declined among the royal courts of Europe and, in 1784, catching in Norway came to a halt. In 1833, a bounty was placed on birds of prey in Norway. The once highly-desired status
symbols were now seen as rats with wings, and they were to be killed by any available means. Many species were driven towards extinction before they received protection in 1971.

Hawking (falconry) is the use of birds of prey in order to hunt or trap. It is demonstrated that this form of hunting was practiced by certain Jewish communities of medieval Northern France.
Part I
In his Shita Mekubetzet, Rabbi Betzalel Ashkenazi records a tradition, which maintains that Rabbenu Ya'akov ben Meir (Rabbenu Tam) used 'silver talons' on his own hawk for reasons of kashrut. It is argued that more likely is a historical attribution of the practice to Rabbi Isaac of Norwich, cited in Shita Mekubetzet according to the no-longer extant Tosafot Rabbenu Peretz on Tractate Hullin. Isaac was a leader of the English Jewish community, and was portrayed in an early anti-Semitic
caricature as a three-headed antichrist. The rationale for the 'silver talons' and its practicalities are discussed in light of the testimony and writings of modern falconers. A dispute between Tosafists regarding the practice of falconry is explained on the basis of variant identifications of נץ as either the hawk or the falcon.
Part II
A bible commentary attributed to Rabbenu Tam describes that Jacob gifted Esau with a hawk. Perhaps Rabbenu Tam personally identified with the role of the shtadlan as “played” by his namesake, the patriarch Jacob. Rabbi Joseph Bechor Shor, a student of Rabbenu Tam, authored a similar type of commentary in which a riverside encounter between Moses and Pharaoh takes place while Pharaoh is hawking. This scene was depicted in a Spanish Passover Haggadah. Another commentary of Bechor Shor is discussed, one having to do with the then-controversial
issue of kisui ha-dam, the commandment to cover the blood of a
slaughtered wild animal or bird. It is suggested that those Jews who allegorically absolved themselves of the commandment may have been motivated by the desire to remain inconspicuous in a mixed hunting environment.
Part III
The halakhic decision attributed to Rabbenu Ephraim of Regensburg (another prominent student of Rabbenu Tam), by Rabbi Yitzhak of Vienna (Or Zarua), prohibits Jews from tying a hawk to the saddle of a horse they are riding, as it is comparable to the biblical prohibition against plowing with an ox and a donkey in tandem. That contested decision was then interpreted by Or Zarua in a surprising manner, one which does not seem to correspond to the realities of hawking. The evolution of this law is discussed in depth, from two original responsa of Rabbenu Ephraim, through a lost section of the Sefer Ha-Dinim by
Rabbenu Peretz, to Or Zarua. This is explained in the context of Or
Zarua's own expressed fierce opposition to sport hunting, which has been contrasted by scholars with the actual French practice of hawking. Under Emperor Frederick II, a contemporary of Or Zarua and a noted falconer and scientist, the hunting practices evolved from an enjoyable means of sustenance, associated with, but not limited to, the royalty, to a bona fide royal sport. It is argued that Frederick's methods are more exemplary of the type of hunting to which Or Zarua reacted negatively, following the precedent of Talmudic opposition to Roman קניגיא/cynegeticus.
Furthermore, Or Zarua represented the isolationist perspective of the 'Pious of Ashkenaz' towards the secular world, as opposed to that of the 'Sages of France,' who took a more accommodating stance, in general.
An appendix discusses a halakhic decision from Rabbenu Tam's
Sepher Ha-Yashar, in which he proclaims and demonstrates his
knowledge of the practices of hawks and falcons. Dores, a category of forbidden birds, is defined by him as birds which consume other birds alive. In another responsum, he permits the consumption of the pheasant, a bird commonly hunted with the aid of hawks. "

相馬拓也（2013）東アジアにおける古式鷹狩の民族考古学　

《キーワード》
民族考古学、古代中国、古代日本、鷹狩、文化人類学、民族鳥類学、画像石、鷹匠埴輪

《Keywords》
Ethno-archaeology, Ancienty China, Ancient Japan, Falconry/ Hawking, Cultural Anthropology, Ethno-Ornithology, Stone Curving, Haniwa Figurine of Falconer

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND: This paper focuses on trans-regionality of ancient falconry culture in East Asia. The falconry might be invented primary by nomadic pastoralists along Eurasian steppe territory in the middle of the 1st millennium B.C.. Nevertheless widely practiced among Asian regions, the origin or its classical mode is little known yet.
MATERIAL & METHODOLOGY: To understand historical depth of “The Human-Raptor Interactions” in East Asia, this research introduces ethnoarchaeological approach. (1) Archaeological figures of falconry and falconers in ancient China and Japan were assembled mainly from publication and museum sources. (2) Cultural interpretation and analysis are given through anthropological and ethno-ornithological fieldwork at the Lake Issyk-Kul Region in Kyrgyz (May~June/ October~November 2006), and Bayan Ulgii Prefecture in Mongolian Altai (July 2011~January 2013).
RESULTS & DISCUSSION: According to archaeological aspect, early falconer motifs were mainly depicted on stone wall carvings of graves from the Western Han Dynasty period (206 B.C. ~ 9 A.D.), and later seen as some haniwa clay figurine in the Tumulus Period of Japan (6th century). To analyze from ethnographic and anthropological aspect, these trans-regional evidences confirm some cultural alteration in local individual falconry from its original context deeply anchored in nomadic herder’s way of tradition and livelihood. Such sedentary falconry is characterized by “non-use of horse mounting”, “left-hand perching of raptors”, and “potential connection to social status”.
CONCLUSION: In conclusion, ancient falconry practice seems to be started in China and Japan successively with transformation adapting to local society and environment while it was occurred primary in the steppe territory.　This research clarifies a wide range adaptation of falconry culture, recognizable not only as an evidence of deep human-raptor interaction for centuries, but also as a cosmopolitan cultural heritage in East Asia.

As archaeological evidence confirms, the Germanic groups who established kingdoms in northwest Europe during the Age of Migrations were participants in a broad cultural zone extending well into Eurasia. Elements of Anglo-Saxon culture in particular have precedents among the semi-nomadic peoples of the steppes. This paper explores these connections with an eye to the Huns as a catalyst of change.

KEYWORDS: Myths of origin, funerary archaeology, animal style art, epic song, personal adornment.

Working from the premise that falconry was introduced in Scandinavia from an eastern
origin sometime in the course of the 6th century AD, this paper suggests that the practice
may have harboured cognitive and spirituals dimensions unshared by the rest of the feudal,
Christian European kingdoms. Falconry is thus reinterpreted in light of an inherited
prehistoric human-animal relationship in Scandinavia, in addition to a reconstructed Viking
Age cosmology. The multidisciplinary approach of this paper permits us to suggest that
falconry was shaped by the culture already in place around 500 AD and that, in turn, it
influenced its subsequent development into the Viking Age. The unique relationship
between a falconer and a bird of prey may have been the inspiration to the development of
the avian hybridity motif of Scandinavian animal art. It may also be likened to the
numerous Norse concepts of animalistic souls and shamanistic shape shifting, such as the
myths have preserved in memorable images and situations.

The Anglo-Saxon charters, official documents dating from the 7 th to 11 th centuries, were used to record land-grants. The surviving documents – whether in original form or as later copies – are largely from the southwest of England and largely date from the 10 th century. They are useful not only for their explicit records of falconers and bequeathed birds, but for place-names preserved within them which may demarcate places in the landscape where hawks could be captured or where they could be flown for food and/or sport. That the place-names indicated this may be supported not only by consideration of the topographies of these areas, but also by consultation of later falconry treatises (especially that written by Frederick II of Hohenstaufen in the 13 th century) and present-day ornitho-logical research. Moreover, this charter evidence provides new insight into the transmission of falconry from England to Wales in the early medieval period. This chapter also surveys the textual evidence for falconry in Anglo-Saxon England and points out the inadequate grounds for stating that the practice was solely the prerogative of the upper classes, as well as the problems of trying to meticulously separate 'hawking' and ' falconry' and 'hawks' and ' falcons' in England at this time.

This essay explores different intonations of the episode of the Female Shaman Eagle that is found in European versions of the Bear’s Son tale. It will be shown that a retelling of this episode can be detected in other myths and legends. It has left traces in the myth of Prometheus as summarized in Hesiod, as well as more explicitly in the legends surrounding the Caucasian hero Amirani. Further to the east the episode surfaces in tales recorded among the Tuvan people while evidence for the entrenchment of the episode along with its mythical ramifications in imagery can be identified in Iran. In the pages that follow we discover that the eastern reach of variants of the Bear’s Son tale takes us into Turkey, the Caucasus, south into Iran and even further to the east into the westernmost steppes of Mongolia. In all these geographic locations it is the figure of the Female Shaman Eagle that is highlighted and acquires mythic proportions, not just in narrative form but also as a highly esteemed bird of prey, celebrated in dance and expressed in striking visual imagery. In these materials the eagle in question is regularly identified as a Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). In addition, these are zones in which there have been strong traditions of raising and training Golden Eagles as hunting companions.

This paper surveys the zooarchaeological evidence for the practice of hawking in England from its origins up to around AD 1500. Although there are some tantalising possible traces of hawking during the Roman (AD 43–410) and Early Anglo-Saxon (AD 410–650) periods, it became firmly established during the Middle Anglo-Saxon (AD 650–850) and Late Anglo-Saxon (AD 850–1066) periods. It continued to be popular from the Saxo-Norman period (AD 1066–mid-12th century) at least until the end of the 15th century and this time range produced bones from the widest variety of hawking birds. Hawking was potentially practiced by people belonging to various social levels, although it was especially popular amongst elites. However, from the Late Saxon period onwards, there are indications of some distinctions in the types of hawks favoured by different parts of society.

While scholars may know that the 'sultan of Babylon' sent Frederick II a 'white parrot', few are aware of the existence of four sketches, indicating it was a Sulphur or Yellow-crested Cockatoo. As these were made two and a half centuries before what was thought to be the earliest European image of the Australasian cockatoo - in Andrea Mantegna's 1496 Madonna della Vittoria - the authors consider the events and shared interests that led the sultan to give this bird to Frederick and how it would have arrived on the Apennine Peninsula in the first half of the thirteenth century.
Published with Jukka Salo, Pekka Niemelä and Simo Örmä.

This paper illustrates how Gulf nationals' claims to their homelands are affirmed and enacted through the ostensibly banal, but highly political, effort to construct falconry as a ‘heritage sport’. Taking the case of the United Arab Emirates, I argue that local elites have harnessed the global discourse of ‘heritage’ to construct an ethnicized and gendered vision of a primordial Arab homeland. Heritage discourses surrounding falconry play an important role in legitimating prevailing structural inequalities in Gulf societies, reaffirming the minority citizen-nationals' claims to ‘ownership’ of the state, as well as naturalizing the masculinist imaginings of desert landscapes. Also considering the transnational dimensions of a geopolitics of falconry, I show how these nationalist narratives relate to cross-regional networks between the Arabian Peninsula and Central Asia. I argue that Gulf Arab falconry practices are not essentially ‘primordial’, but are made possible by and reinforce political economic inequalities institutionalized by contemporary territorial regimes.

The criteria of how to decide that falconry was practiced at an archaeological site are discussed.
They are: 1) falconry devices, 2) the bones of hawks, 3) a preponderance of female goshawks and
sparrowhawks and 4) bones of the birds and mammals that were captured with trained birds of prey.
Bones of hawks in graves are certain evidence that falconry was practiced. A combination of several of
the four criteria is recommended to decide that falconry was practiced at a settlement. Falconry was
practiced in Central and Western Europe and in eastern Sweden since the 6th century. Goshawks and
sparrowhawks were the most important hawks until at least the 16th century.Falconry with peregrines
became more important in the 15th–16th centuries, especially among the high nobility. This is at least
clear for the Netherlands. Historical records make it clear that many of these peregrines, but also goshawks,
were imported from Norway. Bones demonstrate that falconry with goshawks was practiced at
the 15th–16th century castle of Sint Maartensdijk on the island of Tholen (the Netherlands). Historical
records state that the owner of the castle, Frank II van Borselen, imported falcons (peregrines?) and
goshawks from Norway in the second half of the 15th century. A worked reindeer antler and bones
of fish species only living in northern waters confirm the connection of the castle with Norway.The
peregrines found at the 15th–17th century falcon house of the Counts of Hainaut, Holland, and Zeeland,
and later of the stadtholders (Dutch: stadhouders) of Holland and other Dutch provinces in The
Hague (the Netherlands), were most probably also imported from Norway. 17th century Norwegian
records state that falconers employed by the Princes of Orange, then the stadtholders, captured falcons
in Norway and brought them to Holland.

Throughout the Nordic Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period (c. 1000–1700), gyrfalcons were caught in Iceland and exported via foreign merchants to the courts of Europe and beyond. This paper presents the contents of two sets of 16th century documents from northern Germany that provide much insight into the operation of the Icelandic falcon trade with Hamburg at that time. When discussed within the political context, it becomes evident that in the second part of the 16th century the foreign business with Icelandic falcons became even more controlled than before, being regulated through catching licenses issued by the Danish kings. Despite that, the Hamburg trade with Icelandic falcons is identified as part of proto-globalized business, based on networks at home and abroad.

Hunting with raptors and hunting with hounds became distinctive features of the European elite’s lifestyle during the Middle Ages. The association of falconry with the concept of nobility conceived as courtliness and inner discipline – rather than as training to physical aggression and combat – began to assert itself in Norman territory (both Sicilian and English) starting in the middle of the 12th century. It found its full theorization as a royal art under Emperor Frederick II. This paper presents and analyzes a number of texts that bear witness to this shift in perspective. The process is traced from texts by 12th-century authors such as John of Salisbury, Adelard of Bath, Chretien de Troyes, up to the philosophically grounded theoretical statements of Theodore of Antioch (Frederick II’s philosopher). The role played by falconry in the shaping of courtly culture, the author argues, is much greater than usually acknowledged.

Après avoir dressé le contexte historique du concile et de la venue des Grecs en Italie, l’auteur s’intéresse aux différents dessins effectués par Pisanello de Jean VIII Paléologue et essaie d’analyser leurs rapports avec la médaille et avec un manuscrit grec conservé au Sinaï (gr. 2123) contenant, dans un feuillet intercalaire, un portrait de l’empereur.
L’a. exclu l’hypothèse selon laquelle la croix devant laquelle est représenté Jean VIII symbolise un lieu particulier. Selon lui, en l’ajoutant, Pisanello a voulu figurer ce qu’il ne pouvait inscrire. Il est en effet écrit à l’avers de la médaille : « ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΩΡ ΡΩΜΑΙΩΝ Ο ΠΑΛΑΙΟΛΟΓΟΣ ». Le rituel byzantin veut que le nom de l’empereur soit suivi de « ΕΝ ΧΡΙΣΤΩ ΤΩ ΘΕΩ ΠΙΣΤΟΣ », ce qui aurait donné : « ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ ΕΝ ΧΡΙΣΤΩ ΤΩ ΘΕΩ ΠΙΣΤΟΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΩΡ ΡΩΜΑΙΩΝ Ο ΠΑΛΑΙΟΛΟΓΟΣ ».
D’après l’a., Pisanello a fait les différents dessins de l’empereur à Ferrare mais il pense que la médaille a été exécutée à Florence pour célébrer la fin du concile et l’union tant désirée entre les deux Eglises. Toujours selon lui, cette médaille n’a pas été commandée pour l’empereur mais par l’empereur dans un but précis : offrir une médaille à son effigie pour sceller l’union entre les deux Eglises. Il laisserait ainsi le souvenir d’un personnage qui a œuvré à la réalisation de ce rêve et en même temps cela rappelait aux destinataires de cette médaille l’autre but de sa venue à l’Occident, c’est-à-dire obtenir le concours des Latins pour mettre fin au péril turc.

Falconry is usually considered to have appeared in China beginning in the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE). It became an important part of royal hunts in Medieval China (roughly 6th–12th c. CE). Two different types of royal falconry existed in China between the 6th and 14th centuries. These differed most obviously in their timing and setting – but most importantly in the role of falconry in the royal hunt as a whole. The present paper argues that falconry at the beginning of this period was primarily a form of entertainment, but later became an important part of political life. Government management of falcons and falconers, the practice of falconry by the royal family, and the influence of falconry and reactions to falconry are all examined in this paper, which concludes with a discussion of the differences between the two types of royal falconry and the implications of those differences.

Abstract: In the present article the idea of “flying images” concerning more specific images of falconry will be addressed in both a metaphorical and a literal manner. It will be shown how falconry’s iconic afterlife was crafted in the longue durée through specific strategies, ones which are not without contradictions.
This afterlife will be described in a nonlinear way from Frederick II up to Sheikh Zayed
Bin Sultan Al Nahyan through Aby Warburg’s concept of the “image vehicle”. Falconry images are “image vehicles” par excellence. Falconry furniture, such as the hood or lure, has deep iconic impact.
Such items are “image vehicles” in the “Warburgian” sense, transmitting falconry’s physical and metaphorical values over time and across cultures. The article will show how such images directly link
to falconry techniques, thereby revealing falconry’s iconic power both as a practical pursuit and one laden with symbolism.
Keywords: Afterlife, cultural techniques, image vehicle, instrument, political iconology

In contrast to contemporary Scandinavia with its many burials of men that include raptors, only very few human graves with bones of bird of prey are known from the Central European 1st millennium AD. This observation, plus the fact that most of the species identification in Central Europe referring to this go back to the 19th century, raise the question of whether even these few records are reliable. To understand the background of the determinations, the paper gives a short history of the discipline of archaeozoology with a species focus on the identification of bird remains. This part is followed by a presentation and discussion of all seven German and Swiss burials with bones, originally identified as being from a bird of prey. The finds from the sites of Quedlinburg-Boxhornschanze, Alach, and Eschwege, which all date to 550–640 AD and which all yielded female goshawks are highly reliable, which makes the link with falconry even more probable since, in falconry, owing to gender dimorphism, the larger females were used. In contrast, the identification of the raptor records from Selzen and Hedehusum are questionable, and the report from Staufen is scientifically not cceptable. The eagle claw at a grave in Elsau seems not to be connected with falconry since there was no pre-modern falconry with eagles in Europe as far as we know. The results of this study are in line with the present state of knowledge about the early history and distribution of falconry in Central Europe during the Migration Period and shortly after. Later on, traces of this kind of hunting disappeared from burials with the growing influence of Christianity. Another result of the study is that the identification of animal bones, even to species levels, in old publications back to the 19th century are generally not to be challenged.

This study deals with the new production in the field of medicine (human and veterinary), during the Paleologues, and more precisely, with the work of Demetrios Pepagomenos, scholar from the XVth century. According to our point of view, Demetrios Pepagomenos is the author of a human medical treatise, the De Podagra, but also of only two of the three hunting treatises (falcons’ diseases/dogs’ diseases) which have been attributed to him since the Renaissance. In addition to the problems of attributing these texts, we’ve also tried, in the first part of this study, to find out the motives for the confusion between this author and his homonym from the XIIIth century. To reach this goal, we’ve based our argument on the study of the humanistic editions (printed): the edition of the De Podagra by Ange Vergece (who identified Demetrios Pepagomenos as the author of the De Podagra and the hunting treatises but which he dated wrong first from the IXth century and then from the XIIIth century), the edition of the hunting treatises by Andreas Aurifauer, but also on the latin translation of these texts by Pierre Gilles (who identified the author of these hunting treatises) and, finally on the study of the Monac. gr. 390 and the Paris. gr. 2323, which contain these texts.
The second part of our study deals with the hunting work of Pepagomenos and its boom within the scholars in his set.

A origem do nome do arquipélago dos Açores é um dos assuntos mais intrigantes sobre a história destas ilhas Atlânticas.
Das muitas teorias apresentadas ao longo dos tempos, a que defende a identificação errónea da espécie de ave de rapina, encontrada nestas ilhas, milhafre (Buteo buteo rothschildi) pelo Açor (Accipiter gentilis), esteve por trás da origem do nome do arquipélago, é presentemente a mais apoiada. Neste trabalho, recorreu-se a informação histórica compilada ao longo dos últimos séculos, com os dados biológicos e comportamentais das aves de rapina. Quando alinhadas cronologicamente as fontes escritas sobre o tema consegue-se perceber que as descrições iniciais da ave de rapina como de Açor no arquipélago, dão lugar a apenas citações vagas sobre a existência e desaparecimento desta ave na região, culminando com a negação total da existência das mesmas, justificando-se este facto com a ocorrência de um erro de identificação da ave.
Finalmente, a biologia e comportamento das espécies em apreço, Açor e Milhafre, também ajuda a perceber que o Açor, mais do que o milhafre, seria a espécie encontrada neste arquipélago pelos primeiros descobridores.

ABSTRACT
The origin of the name of the archipelago of the Azores is one of the most interesting issues about the history of these Atlantic islands.
Of the many theories presented over the years, the one that defends the erroneous identification of the bird of prey species, commonly found in these islands, common buzzard (Buteo buteo rothschildi), by a hawk-like species, was behind the origin of the name of the archipelago, is presently the most supported.
In this work, we used the historical information compiled over the last five centuries, with the biological and behavioral data of birds of prey. When the historical written sources were chronologically aligned it was possible to see that the initial descriptions of the presence of a hawk-like species in the archipelago give rise to only vague quotations about the existence and disappearance of this bird in the region, culminating in the total denial of existence of them, justifying this fact with the occurrence of an error of identification of the bird.
Finally, the biology and behavior of the species in question, hawk and the common buzzards, also helps to realize that the hawk, more than the buzzard, would be the species found in this archipelago by the first discoverers.

This is a short intellectual biography of my father, Hans J. Epstein, focusing on his interest in falconry, via medieval history, and later his interests in naturalism (mostly lepidopterology). It is also of interest in terms of some of his contacts in the US, figures like Ernst Mayr, and Bill Cottrell.