Evolutionary Linguistics

Within the study of linguistics there has been two distinct issues in regards to the problem of language evolution: symbols and grammar. As outlined below:

“They work by different principles, are learned and used in different ways, and may even reside in different parts of the brain. Their border disputes shape and reshape languages over centuries, and make language not only a tool for communication but also a medium for wordplay or poetry and an heirloom of endless fascination.” (Pinker, 2015)

The importance and significance of metaphor’s in the evolutionary emergence of language arguably plays a key role in the ‘shaping and reshaping of languages over centuries’, and some would even argue in the origins of linguistical thought itself. A metaphor is ‘a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable’, or in other words a metaphor is ‘a thing regarded as representative or symbolic of something else’ (Oxford Dictionaries | English, 2017). This essay will be drawing from the theories of Tomasello (2003), Deutscher (2005) and Smith and Hoefler (2014) in the recreation and summary of a recent theoretical journey towards understanding the importance of metaphor within the deep structural formations of language and language theory. I will approach these theorists in chronological order of which their theories came. This will allow me to end on Smith and Hoefler’s more recent approach to the importance of metaphor in language evolution, where they give a more detailed outline of the apparent cognitive mechanisms at hand.

Ao longo dos anos, fizeram -se muitas tentativas para determinar que fator ou fatores estiveram na origem da emergência da linguagem numa espécie e não noutra. As primeiras tentativas centraram -se na hipótese da caça cooperativa e da fabricação de ferramentas, mas uma vez que muitos animais caçam de forma cooperativa e que a linguagem pode ser praticada ou mesmo ensinada (e, de facto, entre os povos pré -letrados, é geralmente ensinada) simplesmente através da observação e imitação, são poucos os investigadores que hoje em dia apoiam estas propostas [...]. Atualmente, a pressão [seletiva] favorita é a que envolve algum grau de interação social, quer seja a 'inteligência maquiavélica' (tentativas de iludir e dominar outros membros do grupo [...]), a conversa banal e os mexericos como substitutos do grooming manual, ou o desenvolvimento de algum tipo de 'teoria da mente' [...]: a capacidade para perceber que o conteúdo da mente dos outros não tem de ser igual ao nosso." (Bickerton, 2007: 514) "A ideia de que, para compreender a origem e evolução da linguagem, precisamos de uma boa compreensão do que é linguagem, goza de um amplo consenso. Contudo, as opiniões dividem -se sobre qual deverá ser a caracterização exata da linguagem e em que termos deve ela ser definida. No entanto, parece haver algum acordo em torno da ideia segundo a qual, antes da emergência da

In this paper, I will investigate one general theory of language change that can be subsumed under the functional and usage-based paradigms: William Croft’s Theory of Utterance
Selection as proposed in his 2000 book “Explaining Language Change. An Evolutionary Approach”, which draws on the Darwinian idea of evolution and proposes a general framework that is supposed to explain the workings of language change. As an empirical example I will use the ongoing spread of TH-fronting in British English (BrE) in order to test whether his Theory of Utterance Selection (henceforth his theory or the theory) can be brought in line with
popular arguments put forward to explain this case of language change. Indeed, I argue that Croft’s theory can be used to explain motivations for TH-fronting in Great Britain.

Symbolic artefacts have long been archaeology's primary contribution to tracing the origin and subsequent development of human language. But the identification and interpretation of symbolic behaviour poses numerous interpretive problems, particularly before the Upper Palaeolithic where clearly referential forms of symbolic material are rare. As an alternative, theory of mind is presented here, detailing its intimate relationship with language and likely coevolution, alongside the factors which make it a more effective proxy. As a cognitive ability that grades in complexity and predicts linguistic skill in modern cognition, theory of mind also has the potential to denote specific syntactic and semantic features of language such as word reference, mental state verbs and complementation. The potential to detect theory of mind in the archaeological record is considered here, such as within the cultural transmission of stone tool technology and forms of complex social learning like imitation and teaching in early hominin technologies.

In this paper I argue that there is a wealth of relevant theorizing in the field of Cognitive Linguistics that can make important contributions to the study of the evolution of language and cognition. Theoretical explications of the conceptual, interactive, symbolic and perspectival dimension of language in Cognitive Linguistics, especially in the domain of cognitive construal operations, are highly relevant for evolutionary accounts of language. Specifically, I propose that the Mental Spaces and Conceptual Integration framework, popularly known as “blending theory”, is very well suited to model the representational system that had to evolve in the human lineage in order to make possible the interactive and dynamic process of meaning construction fundamental to linguistic interaction.

[I would like to note that my comments about Marcelo Barbieri's biosemiotics in this document reflect an inadequate understanding of his work. I can only refer you to the original texts, and to Cowley (2008; cited in my thesis) for an overview of their relation to the language sciences.]

The language sciences are in the midst of a radical transformation, springing from the simultaneous and interrelated rejection of computational models of cognition and formal systems models of language.  This essay attempts to outline some basic aspects of a new paradigm for approaching linguistic meaning, bringing together fundamentally congruent ideas from thinkers in a broad array of fields. Information and symbols, the two default conceptual apparatuses for engaging with linguistic meaning, are based on a self-contradictory and as such self-defeating dualism of form and meaning. In their place, a language science capable of cross-talk with other disciplines must begin with a biologically valid conception of meaning rooted in embeddedness and situatedness. Among the most developed models available is the enactive perspective, which suggests that all living entities can be regarded as reciprocally partially causal networks of organic processes, which operate as a system providing its own enabling and boundary conditions, both of which are therefore in a constant state of change. This provides the basis for a conception of meaning that can be “scaled up” or brought into contact with language by means of the concepts of sociality, technology, and intersubjective mediation, which together describe the complexification of lifeforms from individual autonomous cells to fundamentally social humans by changing the substrates from which they are constituted as networks of processes. This casts new light on inheritance in evolution, the concept of a shared environment or pre-given reality, and an understanding of human agency as inherently fragmented, flexible, and multi-faceted. The concept of active language or “languaging” emerges from this altered view of agency and humanity as a process of joint-attentional action on attention or awareness itself; mutual action by agents on their own and one another’s encounters with the world. Our experience of “symbolic” or static forms in languaging can be understood as stabilized entities of phenomenological experience built by means of coordination with other agents, and integrated into a larger domain of collective action by means of stabilized behaviors and artifacts whose use across ontogeny is structured by socializing or enculturating linguistic interactions. In this way, a language science built within the theoretical framework and empirical research paradigm established by enactivism is contiguous with philosophy of language and with the social and biological sciences, allowing cross-disciplinary comparison of empirical findings.

The aim of this paper was to comparatively analyze some
(Proto)Indo-European and Oromo-Cush phonological, lexical and
grammatical items and roots. It was triggered by competing
debates and models on (Proto-)Indo-European ((P-)IE) origin, one
of which is the Ancient Model pointing to Africa. (P-)IE and closest
relatives, Eurasiatic and Anatolian, data was collected from the
literature. Pertinent Oromo corpora and native speaker data were
collected. They were subjected to the Comparative Model analysis.
Quite intriguing results showing significant level of resemblance,
both in form and meaning, and implications emerged.

This paper provides a systematic account of the emergence of contour tone, based on a ‘syllable-tone-register’ model and a large body of new firsthand acoustic tonal data. The emergence of tone is a process of pitch upgrading from an accompanying feature of phonation types to a distinctive feature. It involves three linguistic prerequisites, which bring about three processes: (L1) various phonation types, clear voice, breathy voice, falsetto, etc., which intrinsically induce pitch differences. (L2) Mono-syllabic (with great sonorous power) morpheme structure that enhance the pitch differences. (L3) Phonologicalization, which conceptualizes the enhanced pitch differences to a phonological category, tone. Furthermore, this paper proposes two ecological preconditions behind the linguistic prerequisites: (N1) Humid climates, which tend to induce a breathy voice. (N2) Small body-size, which tends to induce falsetto and creaky voice. A flowchart is designed to show how these prerequisites lead to different types of the world’s languages and finally output contour tone.

k e y w o r d s Origin and evolution of language Units and levels of evolution Evolutionary mechanisms Processes Hierarchies Extended Synthesis Applied Evolutionary Epistemology Philosophy of biology
a b s t r a c t Modern evolutionary biology is currently characterized by epistemological divergence because, beyond organisms and genes, scholars nowadays investigate a plurality of units of evolution, they recognize multilevel selection, and especially from within the Extended Synthesis, scholars have identified a plurality of evolutionary mechanisms that besides natural selection can explain how the evolution of anatomical form and functional behavior occur. Evolutionary linguists have also implicated a multitude of units, levels and mechanisms involved in (aspects of) language evolution, which has also brought forth epistemological divergence on how language possibly evolved. Here, we examine how a general evolutionary methodology can become abstracted from how biologists study evolution, and how this methodology can become implemented into the field of Evolutionary Linguistics. Applied Evolutionary Epistemology (AEE) involves a systematic search and analysis of the units (that what evolves), levels (loci where evolution takes place), and mechanisms (means whereby evolution occurs) of language evolution, allocating them into ontological hierarchies, and distinguishing them from other kinds of evolution. In this paper in particular, we give an in-depth analysis of how AEE enables an identification, examination, and evaluation of levels and mechanisms of language evolution, and we hone in on how hierarchies and mechanisms of language (evolution) can and have been defined differentially. For an in-depth analysis of units of language evolution, we refer the reader to Gontier (2017) for which this paper functions as a follow-up. Thus, rather than present a specific theory of how language evolved, we present a methodology that enables us to unite existing research programs as well as to develop theories on the subject at hand.

Language change and language acquisition can be considered an ideal testing ground for investigating the interconnections of biological, cognitive, and cultural factors in the evolution of language (cf. Kirby 2012). This paper focuses on the key role of construal operations in language and cognition, i.e. the capacity to conceptualise states of affairs in specific ways and from different perspectives (cf. e.g. Verhagen 2007). We argue that perspectival construal is a general structuring principle of language that applies to all levels of its organisation and use. Based on previous research as well as on our own findings from corpus data, we will demonstrate that it also plays a crucial role in both language acquisition and language change. This in turn has important implications for the evolution of language. We discuss a variety of examples showing how language as a Complex Adaptive System (Beckner et al. 2009) reflects the dynamicity of perspectival construal operations. Our findings elucidate that the cognitive drive for perspectival construal, as well as the cognitive resources, capacities, and constraints involved in linguistic perspectivation, are of significant importance in the evolution of language.

Music and language are universal human abilities with many apparent similarities relating to their acoustics, structure, and frequent use in social situations. We might therefore expect them to be understood and processed similarly, and indeed an emerging body of research suggests that this is the case. But the focus has historically been on the individual, looking at the passive listener or the isolated speaker or performer, even though social interaction is the primary site of use for both domains. Nonetheless, an important goal of emerging research is to compare music and language in terms of acoustics and structure, social interaction, and functional origins to develop parallel accounts across the two domains. Indeed, a central aim of both of evolutionary musicology and language evolution research is to understand the adaptive significance or functional origin of human music and language. An influential proposal to emerge in recent years has been referred to as the social bonding hypothesis. Here, within a comparative approach to animal communication systems, I review empirical studies in support of the social bonding hypothesis in humans, non-human primates, songbirds, and various other mammals. In support of this hypothesis, I review six research fields: (i) the functional origins of music; (ii) the functional origins of language; (iii) mechanisms of social synchrony for human social bonding; (iv) language and social bonding in humans; (v) music and social bonding in humans; and (vi) pitch, tone and emotional expression in human speech and music. I conclude that the comparative study of complex vocalizations and behaviors in various extant species can provide important insights into the adaptive function(s) of these traits in these species, as well as offer evidence-based speculations for the existence of "musilanguage" in our primate ancestors, and thus inform our understanding of the biology and evolution of human music and language.

Combining theory from cognitive semantics and pragmatics, this book offers both a new theoretical model and a new usage-based method for the under- standing of intersubjectivity, and how social cognition is expressed linguistic- ally at different levels of complexity. Bringing together ideas from linguistics and Theory of Mind, Vittorio Tantucci demonstrates the way in which speakers constantly monitor and project their interlocutor’s reactions to what is being said, and sets out three distinct categories of social cognition in first language acquisition and language change. He also shows how this model can be applied in different settings and includes a range of examples from languages across the globe, to demonstrate the cross-linguistic universality of the model. Additionally, the book offers insights into the gradient dimension of intersubjectivity in language evolution and across the autistic spectrum. Original and innovative, it will be invaluable for researchers in cognitive linguistics, pragmatics, historical linguistics, applied linguistics and cognitive psychology. Vittorio Tantucci is Lecturer in Linguistics at Lancaster University. His research combines diachronic and ontogenetic naturalistic data to shed light on the human ability to express social cognition at different levels of linguistic complexity.

8 1994) and the units and levels of evolution debate (Lewontin 1970; have therefore sought systematic ways in which evolutionary mechanisms can be "universalized' in order for these to be applicable to a wide variety of traits that extend the gene; and they have sought ways to identify universal levels and units of selection such as the replicator (Dawkins 1976), interactor ), reproducer (Griesemer 2000 or manifestor .

The study of language has been historically proposed as a model for human sciences. For the structuralists, it is because languages, like society, and cultural habits , are man-made rule-based systems. For the Darwinists, it is because cultures and societies are like living species, and can be studied with biological methodology. Sociology, biology and linguistics are considered analogous in different ways. To support work in theoretical and applied linguistics, this paper discusses the problem of the nature of language, investigating how the question "What is language?" has been approached from different angles. Textbook answers guide us in many different directions: language is a tool for communication-and for thinking. It is a collection of words and instructions how to use them. It is the characteristic which-arguably separates humans from other animals. It is a social construction, a system of symbols, a system of systems, and so on. To classify perspectives, the intellectual history of schools of linguistic thought is examined, connecting linguistic theory with related disciplines. A taxonomy is proposed based on two axes: humanistic versus biological; and historical versus systemic. Main linguistics frameworks are identified and placed into a fourfold table based on these axes. They include the Bloomfieldian school (Type 1); Saussurean structuralism and its derivatives (Type 2); generative grammar and biolinguistics (Type 3); and cognitive-evolutionary linguistics (Type 4).

In the evolution of humans from hominid ancestors, language somehow arose. The process of developing syntax is a matter of lively debate among syntacticians, anthropologists, and evolutionary psychologists. Due to the lack of primary data, the question will never be satisfactorily answered, but I present here a comparison of the major theories.

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é recontextualizar o tema da evolução da linguagem para as ciências linguísticas, uma vez que praticamente todo o trabalho sobre esse tópico até a década de 1980 foi conduzido por primatólogos, antropólogos, etólogos e especialistas de outras áreas. Para esse fim, também é necessário discutir introdutoriamente alguns tópicos em teoria evolutiva, assim como rever parte da pesquisa feita por esses pesquisadores de outras áreas. A linha de pensamento que estrutura esse trabalho foi inspirada na produção acadêmica do linguista Derek Bickerton, por conta de suas quase quatro décadas de pesquisa nas áreas de crioulização e da hipótese da protolinguagem (termo de acepção evolutiva e não filológica), assim como seu interesse ativo em promover o tópico e sua relevância dentro da linguística.

Forschungsrichtung, die sich der biologischen Entstehung der Sprachfähigkeit sowie der geschichtlichen Entwicklung einzelner menschlicher Sprachen aus evolutionstheoretischer Perspektive nähert. English lemma 3 evolutionary linguistics definition in English 4 an approach to the study of human language based on evolutionary theory and attempting to account both for the emergence of the language faculty and for the historical development of specific human languages. further explanations examples 5 0. Basics Evolutionary Linguistics is inspired by the Theory of Evolution. Going back to CHARLES DARWIN, the theory explains the existence of different biological species and their inheritable traits. Its core is simple: many phenotypic and behavioural traits of organisms are encoded in their genes. When organisms reproduce, copies of those genes are passed on to their offspring, which consequently develop corresponding traits. Since errors ('mutations') occur in the process, populations are normally characterised by genetic, phenotypic, and behavioural variation. At the same time, the phenotypic and behavioural traits for which gene variants code may either increase or decrease the chances of an organism to survive and reproduce (i.e. its 'fitness'). Since environmental resources sustain only a limited number of organisms, evolutionary theory predicts that gene variants with a positive effect on the reproductive success of their carriers will outnumber and oust ('be naturally selected over') their less advantageous competitors. Since the effect which a genetically determined trait has on the reproductive success of its carrier depends on environmental conditions, evolutionary theory also explains why species tend to diversify and to adapt to the ecological niches they inhabit. Thus, it accounts for both the diversity of life and the fact that living organisms appear purposefully designed to maximise the reproductive success of their genes.

Recently, we have witnessed an explosion of studies and discussions claiming that Neanderthals engaged in a range of “symbolic” behaviors, including personal ornament use (Radovčić et al. 2015), funerary practices (Balzeau et al. 2020), visual arts (Hoffmann et al. 2018), body aesthetics (Roebroeks et al. 2012), etc. In Paleolithic archaeology, it has become mainstream to axiomatically infer from these putative behaviors that Neanderthals engaged in symbol use and that Neanderthals thus possessed some form of language. Rudolf Botha’s bombastic title "Neanderthal Language: Demystifying the Linguistic Powers of Our Extinct Cousins" provides a detailed and very critical overview of the archaeological hypotheses and speculations about Neanderthal language.

In this paper we argue that we can gain important insights on the evolution of language and cognition by integrating evolutionary linguistics and the framework of Cognitive Linguistics. In Cognitive Linguistics, language is seen as tightly integrated with cognition as a whole. Construction Grammar and usage-based approaches are closely related to the Cognitive-Linguistic paradigm. Construction Grammar proposes that knowledge of language can be defined as the knowledge of form-meaning pairings of different degrees of schematicity and complexity, whereas usage-based approaches stress that language acquisition and processing are based on instances of actual language usage. As we demonstrate in this paper, concepts from Cognitive Linguistics, construction grammar, and usage-based approaches can help in elucidating the cognitive and interactional factors involved in language evolution. The paper will focus on two main areas: In evolutionary linguistics, language is seen as a complex adaptive system whose structure emerges out of the interaction of three other complex adaptive systems at three different timescales: ontogeny, glossogeny, and phylogeny. Cognitive Linguistics can help in specifying common cognitive factors and processes that play a role on all three of these timescales. Secondly, a Cognitive-Linguistic and constructionist, usage-based perspective can shed light on the cognitive factors underlying the origin of the division of labour between contentful (‘lexical’) and procedural (‘grammatical’) in language structure. In a Cognitive-Linguistic perspective, this development can be related to the tradeoff between the cognitive factors of learnability and expressivity.

One of Neurath's ambitions was to increase the uniformity of scientific languages. A modern day attempt to obtain this goal of a uniform scientific language can be found in the field of evolutionary epistemology. Evolutionary epistemologists are characterized by their quest for universal formulas of evolution that can explain evolutionary change in a variety of phenomena. The most known are universal selectionist accounts. The latter are introduced and implemented within philosophy of science and extra-philosophical fields alike. But what about other evolutionary theories such as symbiogenesis? The process of symbiogenesis need not be confined to either the microcosm or the origin of eukaryotic beings. On the contrary, just as natural selection today is being universalized by evolutionary biologists and evolutionary epistemologists, so symbiogenesis can be universalized as well. It will be argued that in its universalized form, symbiogenesis can provide: (1) a general tool to examine various forms of interaction between different biological organisms, and (2) new metaphors for extra-biological fields such as cosmology, the cultural sciences, and language. Furthermore universal symbiogenesis can complement, if not provide an alternative, for universal selectionist accounts of evolution. As such, universal symbiogenesis can provide a scientific language that enables more uniformity between different disciplines.

The paper lays out some of the basic principles in the analysis of glottogenesis. Based on accumulated evidence, it provides a comparison of the major characteristics of the vocal tracts and communicative sound systems of Homo sapiens and the common chimpanzee, summarizing the necessary mutations for the formation of the human sound-producing
apparatus. It is concluded that the nature of the sonic signal is dependent on other behavior programs. One of the ensuing hypotheses is that the new sound communication system of late period Australopithecines and Homo habilis, when employed in savannah conditions, must have had an opposition between short-range and long-range signals; the short-range system, in particular, must have included signals for demonstrating collective aggression
towards large predators. Another hypothesis is that the long-range system must have employed whistling techniques — signals that were generated by the skeletal muscles and stimulated new breathing mechanisms, including sound production during long exhalation. This, in turn, opened up unlimited possibilities for sound imitation, intonation combining, the emergence of an open sound communication system, etc.

В статье кратко излагаются основные принципы исследования глоттогенеза. На основании известных фактов проводится сравнительный анализ существенных характеристик голосового тракта шимпанзе и человека, дается общая семиотическая характеристика их звуковых коммуникативных систем (ЗКС); формируется перечень изменений, необходимых для перехода к человеческому аппарату звукопроизводства. Делается вывод о зависимом от других поведенческих программ характере звукового сигнала. Выдвигаются гипотезы о противопоставлении в условиях саванны дальних и ближних сигналов в новой ЗКС поздних австролопитеков и хабилисов, о формировании у хабилисов в системе ближних сигналов коллективной звуковой демонстрации агрессии в противостоянии крупным хищникам, а также об использовании в дальней системе
сигналов свиста, как сигнала, производимого скелетными мышцами и послужившего катализатором для выработки нового режима дыхания — производства звука на долгом выдохе, что открыло неограниченные возможности в звукоподражании, в появлении открытой ЗКС, в искусстве комбинирования тонов и т. д.

Looking at the fate of the concept of exaptation in historical linguistics, this article attempts an extension of exaptation from morpho-syntactic change to phonological change. It argues that explicit recognition of the links between language change and other manifestations of Darwinian evolution can provide a context in which the use of this concept might be justified. Borrowing exaptation as a biologically inspired metaphorical label, on the other hand, seems to be of little use in studying phonological change. First, an overview of the applications of exaptation in linguistics is provided (Section 2). Afterward, the historical data adduced in this paper to verify the usefulness of exaptation in studying sound change are presented (Section 3). Consequently, two ways in which exaptation can be applied in the analysis of these data are presented; first (Secion 4.1), a superficially evolutionary approach, which treats exaptation as a biologically inspired metaphorical label, and second (Section 4.2), a strictly evolutionary approach, which goes beyond metaphorical extensions of biological terms to linguistics, and which instead treats languages as truly evolutionary systems.

Let us suppose that you are a research linguist, tormented by some doubts and questions about the state of your profession, and not constrained by having to repeat a catechism of "known truths" to Linguistics 101 students, and not worried about employment tenure. How would you actually go about tackling "the central problem of linguistics", namely how we acquire and maintain knowledge of the probability of systemic relationships in a language?

'Discourse history' can be can be conceived of as a sub-or sister-discipline of historical linguistics that focuses on socio-and pragmalinguistically motivated changes. How far does such theory construction help us to establish a coherent set of objects and methods of the historical dimension of Critical Discourse Analysis? And how can such a research perspective be integrated with approaches of related disciplines such as the history of ideas/conceptual history, rhetoric, historical pragmatics and sociolinguistics? The paper investigates these questions with reference to the diachronic account of metaphor, with special regard to the conceptualization of state/society as a (human) body. Aspects of this metaphorical mapping have become lexicalized as set phrases (body politic, head of government etc.) that are still in use today; however, we can trace their use back to and beyond medieval times. Does such a tradition of use constitute a discourse history in an empirically testable sense? Or are we just dealing with repeated instances of what is fundamentally an 'ahistorical' cognitive operation? In conclusion, I shall propose a multidisciplinary approach that aims to reconcile the cognitive analysis of metaphors and the historical modelling of their development in discourse traditions.

علوم و فناوري‌هاي شناختي از جمله حوزه‌هاي نو در ايران و جهان محسوب مي‌شود كه با رشته‌هاي مختلف علمي در ارتباط است. در اين ميان زبان‌شناسي شناختي از جديدترين گرايش‌ها در اين عرصه محسوب مي‌شود كه بيش از سه دهه از عمر آن نمي‌گذرد. استعاره تنها موضوع و الزاماٌ مهم ترين موضوع پژوهش در زبان‌شناسي شناختي نيست، ولي شايد بتوان گفت كه به سبب سامان يافتگي چارچوب تحليل، مشهورترين موضوعي است كه عموماٌ زبان‌شناسي شناختي را با آن مي‌شناسند. نوشته حاضر تلاش مي‌كند تا ضمن معرفي و ارزيابي يكي از آثار درخور توجه در اين حوزه، زمينه آشنايي خوانندگان از حوزه‌هاي مختلف علوم را با مباني زبان‌شناسي شناختي و نظريه تاثير گذار استعاره‌هاي مفهومي فراهم آورد

ABSTRACT
Cognitive sciences and technologies that are related to various scientific disciplines are among the new fields in Iran and the world. Cognitive linguistics, meanwhile, is one of the newest trends in this field, not more than three decades old. Metaphor is not the only subject and necessarily the most important subject of research in cognitive linguistics, but it may be said that due to its systematic framework, it is the most well-known subject with which cognitive linguistics is generally known. The present article tries to introduce and evaluate one of the remarkable works in this field, that is the book “Metaphor and Cognition” by Azita Afrashi (2018) and to provide the readers of different fields of science with the preliminaries of cognitive linguistics and the influential theory of conceptual metaphors.

Thus far, the fact that, in a sufficient number of cases, human discourse ceases to play the role of a dominant medium of interacting between some political/diplomatic parties, which motivates such parties to engage in violent interaction, including primarily war, was not described in more detail, let alone theorized or explained in satisfactory terms – this book fills the gap by proposing, on discourse-ethical premises, a discourse-theoretical analysis of communication patterns as actually displayed by political/diplomatic actors.
Hence, this book's key contention is that the attitude to language should be theorized as one of the major causes of war. Perhaps the easiest way to put it is to quote a famous Canadian fiction writer, Margaret Atwood, one of whose characters stated that war is what happens when language fails.

Статья посвящена реконструкции первого шага от системы коммуникации животных (СКЖ) к языку, попытке определения вида, на долю которого пришелся этот шаг, и периода времени, в который произошло это событие. Реконструкция опирается на данные антропологических, биологических, нейрофизиологических, лингвистических  и семиотических исследований.
The paper is devoted to the reconstruction of the first step from the animal communication system to the human language and to an attempt to establish the period of time and the species that made this step. The exploration was based on data from different scientific disciplines, such as anthropology, biology, neurophysiology, linguistics and semiotics.

Recent discoveries of semantic compositionality in Japanese tits have enlivened the discussions on the presence of this phenomenon in wild animal communication. Data on semantic compositionality in wild apes are lacking, even though language experiments with captive apes have demonstrated they are capable of semantic compositionality. In this paper, I revisit the study by Boesch (Hum. Evol. 6:81–89, 1991) who investigated drumming sequences by an alpha male in a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) community in the Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire. A reanalysis of the data reveals that the alpha male produced semantically compositional combined messages of travel direction change and resting period initiation. Unlike the Japanese tits, the elements of the compositional expression were not simply juxtaposed but displayed structural reduction, while one of the two elements in the expression coded the meanings of both elements. These processes show relative resemblance to blending and fusion in human languages. Also unlike the tits, the elements of the compositional expression did not have a fixed order, although there was a fixed distribution of drumming events across the trees used for drumming. Because the elements of the expression appear to carry verb-like meanings, the compositional expression also resembles simple verb-verb constructions and short paratactic combinations of two clauses found across languages. In conclusion, the reanalysis suggests that semantic compositionality and phenomena resembling paratactic combinations of two clauses might have been present in the communication of the last common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans, not necessarily in the vocal modality.

By the end of the nineteenth century, thinking about languages in organicist, evolutionary terms had spread throughout the world. Romanticism, in its various forms, had metamorphosed into evolutionary thought, and philology was rediscovered as biology. Central to the evolutionary perspective was the notion that language is an organism whose development and transformation are subject to natural laws. Although we know so much about this important chapter in European intellectual history, we know far less about the resonance of romantic and evolutionary thought beyond Europe, where struggles against European colonialism engendered movements of cultural revival and gave romanticism and evolutionary thought a distinctive local character. This essay sheds some light on the local conditions and dynamics that made thinking about language in evolutionary terms not only possible, but productive, in the Arab east. lt considers the role of the Lebanese writer, novelist and historian Jurji Zaydan (1861-1914), who was most probably the first to view "Arabic as a Living Organism".

In the 20 th century] biological models and concepts were [….] seen as inappropriate and even distasteful. Evolution in particular, ha[d] become a 'dirty word' in […] linguistic theory. MacMahon 1994: 314 A brief argument Premise (1) A linguistic code (langue, knowledge of how to communicate in a language) is a set of constituents (signs, rules) that represent institutional facts (cf. John Searle) and are established by shared knowledge of them. Premise (2) Being shared implies having been transmitted among speakers through communication, acquisition and/or learning.