Ethics of Food

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Cloning technology may have commercial significance, so patenting (i.e. the legal protection of so-called biological inventions) is surveyed here. There are uncertainties about patenting of the processes of animal cloning, cloned animals, their offspring and products derived from cloned animals. The Biotechnology directive (98/44/EC), while stating that human cloning cannot be the subject matter of a patent, is silent on animal cloning. A non-exhaustive list of unpatentable processes exists, and this list may suggest that animal cloning can be patented. However, since the list can be supplemented, it remains possible that patenting of cloned animals will be considered contrary to public order and morality. Moreover, the question remains whether the invention criterion is satisfied when it comes to cloned animals. At the end of the report some of the main questions and key issues it identifies about the regulation of farm animal cloning are highlighted.

The consumption of traditional meat is currently being challenged by the rise of meat alternatives claimed to be more beneficial for the environment and non-human animals. One of the peculiarities of these products lies in their attempt to replace meat through the close imitation of its sensory qualities, which poses relevant philosophical questions: What are the purported reasons that motivate this imitation, instead of the promotion of different but sustainable foods that break with the imagery of meat eating? And, if eating meat is considered morally wrong, what is the moral status of the simulation of a wrong act? Our aim is to address these questions to shed new light on the ethical claims that constitute, in fact, one of the major advantages of these products. Firstly, we introduce the aims and functions of simulating meat sensory qualities. Subsequently, we investigate whether the imitation of meat can be found morally acceptable on consequentialist grounds. Lastly, we raise the question of whether there is room for claiming that imitating meat is morally wrong even if its consequences are overall better, from the point of view of non-consequentialist ethical frameworks. We conclude that there are not compelling reasons for considering meat imitation as morally undesirable.

The work of Amartya Sen proved breakthrough in our understanding of disasters by shifting the emphasis from the hazard to societal causes of vulnerability. This chapter begins with an outline of Sen's work on famines and its relation to the Disaster Risk Reduction literature. It then goes on to outline the capability approach the development of which Sen played a central role. The approach is contrasted with the view of income as development, utilitarianism and Rawls. Thereafter, taking the case of climate change, the chapter criticises Sen for his inattention to sustainability issues. It is argued that instead of seeing development as increasing people's freedoms to live the lives they value, as Sen does, we should think of sustainable development as increasing legitimate freedoms. Legitimate freedoms are demarcated by drawing on Thomas Scanlon's version of contractualism and the

In diesem Beitrag soll ein theoretischer Rahmen fur die Analyse der kulturellen Bedeutung des Geschmacks entwickelt werden. Somit wird nicht die Relevanz des Geschmacks und des Essens fur die Kultur – Kochen, Essensrituale – untersucht, sondern es wird auf die Bedeutung des Geschmacks als kulturelle Metapher fokussiert. Anhand eines mediologischen Ansatzes werden drei verschiedene Dimensionen des Geschmacks identifiziert: eine Physiologie, eine Asthetik und eine Symbologie des Geschmacks. In dieser Analyse wird argumentiert, dass die christliche Kultur eine sehr reiche Quelle geschmacksbasierter kultureller Metaphern ist und dass der Geschmack eine wesentliche Rolle darin spielt, wie das Christentum ein eigenes Verstandnis von Wissen, Ethik und menschlichem Leben im Allgemeinen entwickelt hat.

Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand of openbaar gemaakt, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, hetzij elektronisch, hetzij mechanisch, door fotokopieën, opnamen of enig andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de Erven Adel den Hartog.

Since its first articulation in official discourse in 1974, 'food security' has become the primary cognitive lens through which the prevalence and complexity of global hunger are viewed. This study traces a genealogy of 'food security' through a series of intergovernmental texts and academic studies as a means to historicize and relativize contemporary understandings of the term. A discourse analytic approach serves to deconstruct prescribed definitions and interrogates the knowledge/power relations of 'food security' as a rationalising technology of global liberal governance. The authority of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to 'speak food' is examined in light of changing conceptions of what food security 'is' and how best it should be 'achieved'. The study embodies a critique of traditional positivist approaches to the study of food security, and to the study of social science more generally. It shows how changing discursive technocracies produce new regimes of truth which replace the need for political decision with the dictates of technoscientific knowledge and the governmental rationality of risk management.

Prior to Malta’s accession to the European Union (EU) in May 2004, new legislative processes regulating the use of animals for scientific research purposes were adopted in line with the provisions found under the European Union Council Directive 86/609/EEC. The scope of these regulations is to protect animals used or intended to be used in scientific experimental procedures which may cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm, using evaluation procedures that promote refinement, reduction and replacement techniques.

Over the years, Mars has been the centre of attraction for science fiction writers, Hollywood movie makers, astrologers, astronomers and the scientific community. For scientists and technologists, Mars continues to be an enigma. This is essentially because even tough humans have dreamt for long about human colonisation of Mars. Still, in reality humans are nowhere near to realising such a dream. During the last five decades, more than fifty percent of human efforts to send an unmanned spacecraft to hover in the vicinity of Mars or to land on the Martian surface have failed. Interestingly, during September 2014 a developing state like India succeeded in placing its own satellite in the Martian orbit and that too in its first attempt when no other state was able to achieve such distinction in all these years. India’s success has won significant international acclaim and has significantly raised expectations about its overall space programme. This paper attempts to understand the rat...

Ti j d s c h r i f t vo o r p r a k t i j ko n d e r s t e u n i n g a u g u s t u s 2 0 1 3 | n r 4 Inleiding Voeding is een van de hoekstenen van de behandeling van diabetes mellitus type 2. Je doel bij je voedingsadviezen is het voorkomen en behandelen van klachten en complicaties zoals hart-en vaatziekten, chronische nierschade, en retino-en neuropathie. Voeding heeft invloed op bloeddruk, lipidenspectrum, gewicht en glykemische instelling. Een lagere bloeddruk en een verbeterd lipidenspectrum spelen een rol bij het voorkomen van hart-en vaatziekten. Een betere glykemische instelling is vooral belangrijk voor het welbevinden en het voorkomen van microvasculaire complicaties. Zowel goede voeding als gewichtsreductie kunnen een effect hebben op deze waarden. Uiteindelijk gaat het natuurlijk niet om het verbeteren van de risicofactoren op complicaties, maar om het daadwerkelijk voorkomen van vooral hart-en vaatziekten. Dit is alleen voor het mediterrane dieet aannemelijk gemaakt (zie onder 'Onverzadigd vet'). Een praktijkondersteuner geeft aan mensen met diabetes type 2 advies gebaseerd op de Richtlijnen goede voeding van de Gezondheidsraad (RGV). 1 Je geeft ook voedingsadvies bij een hypoglykemie en over het tijdstip van insuline spuiten en eten, en motiveert bij de uitvoering van het voedingsadvies zoals gegeven door de diëtist. De Zorgmodule Voeding beschrijft Ti j d s c h r i f t vo o r p r a k t i j ko n d e r s t e u n i n g a u g u s t u s 2 0 1 3 | n r 4 Koolhydraten Koolhydraatarm dieet RGV: 'Het is het gezondst als per dag tussen de 40 en 70% van alle calorieën in de voeding uit koolhydraten komen. '

Dietary guidelines are mostly issued by agrifood departments or agencies of governments, and are the result of power play between interest groups and values. They have considerable influence over food preferences and purchases of consumers. Ethical problems are at stake not only with respect to power strategies and their influence on consumers. In this paper I will consider three different types of guidelines: a nutrient oriented type (like the Dutch or American ones), a process oriented type (Scrinis in Nutritionism: the science and politics of dietary advice, Columbia University Press, New York, 2013) and a meal oriented type (like the Brazilian one). In the nutrient oriented guidelines healthy nutrients and food stuffs are mentioned that excel in containing one or more 'healthy' nutrients. Bio-and nutrition scientists and the producers of nutrients, like the sugar, dairy and animal industry, have a lot of influence in this variant. The nutrient oriented framing of food is focussed on individual health. Individuals are implicitly addressed to take responsibility for their own long term health; they have to acquire surveillance and cognitive skills in interpreting their bio data. They don't need to acquire skills to cook. In the process oriented type, foods and ingredients are categorized according to minimal, refined and reconstituted production processes. Nutrition scientists have the last say here. Consumers do need some food skills to handle fresh products. In the meal oriented guidelines, politicians, social scientists and fresh food producers have prominent responsibilities with respect to the formulation of the guidelines and their application. Buying fresh products, preparing and eating together are the main themes. Food is framed in terms of cooking, and eating and sharing meals. Consumers have to spend time in buying fresh ingredients and cooking; they have to develop food capabilities. The formulation of dietary guidelines is not a neutral & Michiel Korthals

The rise of responsible innovation of agriculture is a logic inevitable constituted by the addressing of agricultural Grand Challenges, comprehensive governance of agriculture 4.0. and the rectifying of capital logic.. The characteristics of agricultural responsible innovation contain stakeholder engagement, consideration of a range of alternatives, preparedness to respond and so on. Its values include the enhancement of trust and trustworthiness, the construction of competitive advantage, the acceptance and suitability of agricultural innovation and the outcomes, the sustainable development of agriculture and the like. And its approaches contain the three strategies suggested by D. C. Rose and J. Chilvers on the macro level, framework of six domains, value sensitive design and open innovation 2.0 on the meso level and discursive awareness and techno-ethical imagination on the micro level. Responsible Innovation of Agriculture could supply the thought of overall-responsibility for agricultural ethics,  基金项目：国家社科项目"人工智能负责任创新研究"(19CZX016)。 作者简介：刘战雄(1985-)，河北邢台人，南京农业大学副教授，哲学博士，主要研究方向为负责任创新，农业伦理、人工 智能治理。

The transition to sustainable land-based agriculture in the Netherlands is deepening. A promising direction is that of agroforestry systems in which food forests represent a special category. Food forests are deliberately designed multi-layered forests of canopy and understorey trees, shrubs and perennial crops that provide humans with a variety of ecosystem services. The interest in food forests has been growing recently due to increasing needs for healthy and local food, restoration of living soils and biodiversity. In the Netherlands, less than 1 promille of the agricultural area is now covered with food forests. But its acreage may increase once scientific research has provided the necessary evidence for the alleged ecosystem services and proper value chains can be established. Then, food forests will cause significant changes in the Dutch landscape in the coming decades, both in rural and in (sub) urban areas. We must, however, ask ourselves which landscapes are allowed to condense in structure using food forests and which not. We present a research agenda to answer those questions.

This article discusses the sin of laziness and its environmental effects. It is also about the impact of this sin on the will of believers to deal with the problems which the state of the ecological crisis poses in front of them. The sin of Laziness is referred in the article as one of the sources of a culture of comfort and rejection, and consequently a source of environmental pollution. Laziness leads to a general state of reluctance to take position and make decision about activities that could lead to increased environmental awareness and encourage people to act for the benefit of the environment and to preserve what has not yet been destroyed or damaged by human reckless behavior. The sin of laziness in this article is seen as the source point of the escape way from reality, resulting in desire to preserve "present lifestyles" and "feed their self-destructive vices: trying not to see them, trying not to acknowledge them, delaying the important decisions and pretending that nothing will happen.”(LS 59). Laziness and immobility, neglect and negligence, especially by Christians, are among the greatest dangers in the path of personal and comunital integral ecological conversion, which involves acknowledging our own misconceptions, sins, omissions and negligence, and leads to sincere repentance and a desire for an internal change of consciousness and busy environmental action ( LS 218). Vjesnik Đakovačko-osječke nadbiskupije : časopis za pastoralnu orijentaciju 2457 (2020), 3; 25-32

В статье рассматриваются сырные традиции европейских регионов как часть гастрономической аутентичности и традиции потребления еды, свойственной определенной территории. Алтайская территория исследуется в качестве одной из территорий России, в которой сыр является неотъемлемой частью местной кухни, подобно французской, британской, германской, испанской и швейцарской кухням. Сырный брендинг по отношению к месту и региональному развитию работает на множестве различных уровней, в числе которых обращается внимание на сырные рестораны Лондона, Парижа, Страсбурга, Барнаула. / The article deals with the cheese traditions of European regions as part of the gastronomic authenticity and the tradition of food consumption peculiar to a certain territory. Altai territory is explored as one of the territories of Russia, where cheese is an integral part of the local cuisine, like French, British, German, Spanish and Swiss cuisine. Cheese branding in relation to the place and regional development works on a variety of different levels, including cheese restaurants in London, Paris, Strasbourg, Barnaul.

This essay provides an overview of Plato’s contribution to food ethics. Drawing on various Platonic dialogues, the discussion includes an analysis of the problem of gluttony and the correlate virtue of moderation, the diet of the Republic’s ideal city, and the harmonious order of the tripartite soul.

Pitanje neumjerenosti u jelu i piću često i olako svo­dimo samo na količinu pojedenih i popijenih namirnica. Ipak, promotrim o li otajstvo hrane i pića malo manje površnim i malo manje uskim pogledom, vi­djet ćemo da su proždrljivost i halapljivost ukorijenjeni u nemaru i dubokom prijeziru vrijednosti hra­ne i pića, ljudi, životinja i biljaka, stvorenja, zemlje i Stvoritelja, koji je sve stvorio za održanje života. U ovom se članku problemu grešne neumjerenosti u jelu i piću pristupa ponajprije iznošenjem pozitivnoga teološkog i praktičnog nauka o hrani i piću, a napo­se o zemlji, kojoj dugujemo hranu i piće. Osvjetljujući životvorni fenomen hranjenja i pijenja svjetlom vjere i teološkim pristupom utemeljenim na biblijskoj teologiji zemlje, čitatelju se pruža mogućnost da barem malo bolje razumije što sve stoji iza čina jedenja i pijenja, iza hrane i pića što se nalazi pred njim na tanjuru. Uzimanje hrane tako je normalan i svakodnevan čin da o njemu rijetko kad ili uopće ne razmišljamo. Du­gotrajno prekomjerno uzimanje hrane i pića, a osobito nepravilna i nekvalitetna prehrana, za posljedicu imaju gubitak ne samo osobnog zdravlja, nego i poremećaje većih razmjera. Poremećaj hranidbenog sustava ljudskog roda utječe na biološku raznolikost svijeta i narušava živote mnogih živih bića, uništava sklad okoliša i dovodi do izumiranja raznih živih bića o kojima ni ne razmišljamo kad prinosimo ustima žlicu ili vilicu s hranom.

The use of satellites in communication systems is very much a fact of everyday life, as is evidenced by the many homes equipped with antennas or dishes used for the reception of satellite television. Satellites offer a number of features not readily available with other means of communication. Satellite signals ignore political boundaries as well as geographic ones, which may or may not be a desirable factor. Satellites are also used for remote sensing which helps in the detection of water pollution and the monitoring and reporting of weather conditions. In this paper, we discuss about three satellites -Curiosity Rover, Mangalyaan and Maven, which were launched to explore the Martian atmosphere.

Dietary guidelines are mostly issued by agrifood departments or agencies of governments, and are the result of power play between interest groups and values. They have considerable influence over food preferences and purchases of consumers. Ethical problems are at stake not only with respect to power strategies and their influence on consumers. In this paper I will consider three different types of guidelines: a nutrient oriented type (like the Dutch or American ones), a process oriented type (Scrinis in Nutritionism: the science and politics of dietary advice, Columbia University Press, New York, 2013) and a meal oriented type (like the Brazilian one). In the nutrient oriented guidelines healthy nutrients and food stuffs are mentioned that excel in containing one or more ‘healthy’ nutrients. Bio- and nutrition scientists and the producers of nutrients, like the sugar, dairy and animal industry, have a lot of influence in this variant. The nutrient oriented framing of food is focussed on individual health. Individuals are implicitly addressed to take responsibility for their own long term health; they have to acquire surveillance and cognitive skills in interpreting their bio data. They don’t need to acquire skills to cook. In the process oriented type, foods and ingredients are categorized according to minimal, refined and  reconstituted production processes. Nutrition scientists have
the last say here. Consumers do need some food skills to handle fresh products. In the meal oriented guidelines, politicians, social scientists and fresh food producers have prominent responsibilities with respect to the formulation of the guidelines and their application. Buying fresh products, preparing and eating together are the main themes. Food is framed in terms of cooking, and eating and sharing meals. Consumers
have to spend time in buying fresh ingredients and cooking; they have to
develop food capabilities. The formulation of dietary guidelines is not a neutral operation, but determined by controversies about framings of food and health, responsibilities and also by integrity and self-confidence of experts. It is striking that biological and nutrition scientists often proclaim to possess the final truth on the healthiness of nutrients, and heap scorn on diet gurus. They don’t care that their
often incoherent recommendations cause a lot of confusion with consumers and sometimes even lack of trust. I discuss these themes in the paper and will also give some arguments why in the current situation the meal oriented type is ethically more acceptable.

Inleiding Zoveel mogelijk geraffineerde suikervrij eten is gezond, maar suiker volledig van je dagelijks menu schrappen is zo goed als onmogelijk. Suiker is in zowat alle voedingsproducten aanwezig, zelfs in voeding die als uiterst gezond worden beschouwd zoals yoghurt en allerlei ontbijtgranen. Het massaal gebruik van geraffineerde witte suiker is verantwoordelijk voor overgewicht, hart-en vaatziekten, hoge bloeddruk en diabetes. Volgens de Wereldgezondheidsorganisatie is de maximale suikerinname per volwassen 7 theelepels of te wel 25 gram per dag

Amartya Sen's Book of Development as Freedom has been certified as one of the Contemporary Human Development Theories. Sen's work was broadly acclaimed as a step forward, as in if it comes right down to a human development determination and a new remarkable change to the economic improvement pattern in academia.

This paper faces the problem of the morality of fighting against unhealthy eating cultures. I defend the moral thesis that we have no good reason to fight against them. I also recommend a way for helping people to develop healthy eating habits without opposing their unhealthy eating cultures.

Vormen van landbouw die geen of weinig chemie gebruiken en dichtbij burger-consumenten staan zoals Stadslandbouw, groenteclubs en Slow Food groeien ieder jaar met dubbele cijfers. Maar nog steeds heerst onder deze bewegingen een calimero houding van 'wij zijn maar 0.001 % van de voedselproductie'. Niettemin, het markt aandeel van de alternatieven is nu 7 %. De calimero houding is een rem op verdere ontwikkelingen. De enorme groei van lokale initiatieven in de hele wereld, maar ook in Nederland, zou nu een vervolg moeten krijgen met meer institutionele initiatieven, bijvoorbeeld met wethouders voor voeding in iedere gemeente, met provinciale en nationale beleidsinitiatieven voor wetenschappelijke en technologische ondersteuning (dus gedeputeerden voor voeding). De nationale politiek moet facilitering van alternatieve landbouw tot een kernpunt maken. Ook de lokale ondernemers zelf zullen zich moeten verenigen in een branche organisatie die hun belangen vertegenwoordigt en een toekomst agenda voor beleid, communicatie en ontwikkeling opstelt en uitdraagt. Er is meer kennis nodig over kleinschalig en multifunctioneel gebruik van water voor vissen en planten, over relaties tussen stadsafval en gewassen, over LED lampen etc. Pas de afgelopen jaren zijn technologen van Wageningen Universiteit bezig met ontwerpen voor lichte mechanische wiedmachines. Heel veel onderzoek staat in het teken van groei van kwaliteitsloze en onvoldoende verantwoorde opbrengsten, zoals meer eieren uit een kip, meer melk uit een koe, meer meel uit een aren. De alternatieve landbouw wordt gekenmerkt door kortere ketens, soms heel korte ketens, van bodem tot bord en van bord tot bodem, met misschien maar een of twee tussenpersonen komen natuurlijk al eeuwen voor, maar wordt vaak in de moderne tijd juist als achterlijke onzin en niet efficiënt afgedaan. De nieuwe aandacht voor stadslandbouw, biologisch, agroecologisch, voedselbossen, en (stads)moestuinen heeft echter een andere definitie van efficiëntie en van onzin. Efficiënt is niet zo goedkoop mogelijk, maar zo goed mogelijk inspelen op ecosysteemdiensten, op natuurlijke processen, op gezondheid en op smaak. Voeding heeft niet betekenis als een economische waar, maar als een proces met goede banen en goede contacten. Juist voor deze stroming ontbreekt iedere structuur: geen quasi-politieke verbanden, geen branche organisatie, onvoldoende wetenschappelijke instituties; de conventionele landbouw beheerst het organisatie terrein. Niettemin, in Nederland is deze andere vorm van landbouw-en voedselproductie met een hele andere impact op het landschap de snelst groeiende bedrijfstak, ongeveer 20 % per jaar, en haalt nu ongeveer 7% van totale voedselproductie (LEI). Hierbij gaat het allang niet meer alleen om biologisch, maar om allerlei ambachtelijke vormen van landbouw, zoals agroecologie en permacultuur, die streven naar inpassing van landbouw in natuurlijke processen en bodemleven meer dan biologisch. Nederland krijgt meer soorten landschappen met steeds andere vormen van bedrijvigheid. Dat betekent: homogene versus gevarieerde landschappen, grote en kleinschalige bedrijven, smalle en brede boeren, grote en kleine milieuafdruk (zowel vervuiling, als grondstoffenverbruik, als bijdrage aan klimaat opwarming) en actieve burgers (bijdragen aan voedselproductie via zelf groente telen of CSA), actieve consumenten (zelf koken, groenteclubs etc), kritische consumenten (verantwoord shoppen), tot 'gewone' consumenten (kopen bij supermarkten). Over het

Als je met een ploeg de aarde bewerkt, er kunstmest op strooit, en chemische bestrijdingsmiddelen overheen spuit, dan heeft deze aanpak een andere sociale impact, en ander sociale vooronderstelingen, dan wanneer je dat niet wil. In het eerste geval heb je fabrieken, infrastructuren en distributie netwerken nodig om de middelen te produceren en wetenschappelijke instituten om onderzoek naar zaden te doen. Ook heb je burgers nodig die genoegen nemen met aantasting van biodiversiteit, zwaar verwerkte voeding ('junkfood'), klimaat verandering en andere 'ongemakken'. Agroecologie daarentegen wil geen inputs gebruiken anders dan gewassen en bomen (" less is more "). De aanwezige microben en stofwisselingsprocessen moeten het werk doen en daarmee is een sociale context gegeven van actieve boeren en consumenten en een onderzoeksbenadering gericht op agroecosystemen (Altieri 2011). Geen enkele landbouw technologie is maatschappelijk neutraal. Agroecologie is zowel een wetenschappelijke benadering van landbouw en voeding, als een sociale, culturele en politieke benadering (Tomich 2011). Juist de weigering om zo min mogelijk externe inputs te gebruiken, of positief gezegd, alleen in te spelen op de stofwisselingsprocessen in bodem en lucht, hebben vergaande sociale aspecten. Immers, deze ultieme duurzaamheidsbenadering vraagt zeer gedetailleerd werk en veel kennis, want overal is de bodem anders. Het vraagt ook een nauwkeurige selectie van gewassen en bodem. De eindgebruiker, de consumenten, zullen hun etensvoorkeuren af moeten stemmen op wat in de agroecologie voor mogelijk wordt gehouden. Wereldwijde handel en transport van primaire producten en voedingsmiddelen zijn slechts beperkt mogelijk; dergelijke handel vereist monoculturen, dat wil zeggen specialisatie op één enkel gewas. Voor de agroecologie geldt dat ieder stukje landbouwgrond, om goede opbrengsten te hebben, voldoende biodiversiteit moet tonen en dus zijn monoculturen uitgesloten. Hoe groter de agrobiodiversiteit, hoe groter de opbrengsten. Grote bevolkingsgroepen, zoals stedelijke bevolkingen, zullen zich ook moeten inspannen om deze vorm van landbouw tot een succes te maken en te behouden, zowel via hun consumenten voorkeuren, als via de plaatsen van de akkers in of in de buurt van een stad. Er zijn al veel gebieden in de wereld, zoals China, India, Indonesië en Cambodja, waar deze complexe verhoudingen tussen sociale en fysieke processen worden uitgeprobeerd en tot algemene landbouw benadering zijn geworden. Voor de goede orde, agroecologie vat ik hier als een paraplu term voor alle 'low-input intensification' benaderingen, zoals System of Rice Irrigation (SRI), integrated pestmanagement, conservation agriculture, permaculture en voedselbossen (Stoop 2011; Uphoff 2015). De opbrengsten zijn soms ongelofelijk hoog, hoger dan bij de industriële

Inleiding Een pak rijst, een bloemkool, een kilo aardappelen zien er zo simpel uit: je koopt ze in de winkel, kookt ze enkele minuten en legt ze op je bord. Maar de processen die de rijst, bloemkool of aardappel tot resultaat hebben, daar gaat het ethisch gezien om. De Big Mac, plofkip, aardappel en grapefruit hebben hun landschappen met heel bepaalde dieren, boeren en consumenten, hier en nu, en heel ver weg en straks. Het is inherent onderdeel van de vervreemding tussen westerse mensen en hun voeding dat deze consequenties vaak niet worden meegenomen. Tegelijk menen veel burger-consumenten dat de huidige voedingsproductie onvoldoende rekening houdt met gezondheid, smaak, duurzaamheid, boeren, en fair trade. Vanuit die vervreemding, en de onvrede daarover, zijn er vooral vanuit burgers-consumenten heel veel nieuwe initiatieven opgekomen, die overigens al in ontwikkelingslanden soms heel normaal waren. Geen sprake van nostalgie of romantiek dus. Wat zullen innovaties als kweekvlees, precisielandbouw, boerloze productie, precisielandbouw, stadslandbouw, insecten en peulenburgers voor landschappen krijgen? Bij voedsel en landschap gaat het steeds om producten en processen, kwantiteit en kwaliteit, geld en goed werk, opbrengst en toegang tot voedsel, werk en ontspanning, (an)organische inputs en biodiversiteit, natuur en cultuur, dieren en mensen. Hoe liggen de verhoudingen tussen die polen? Wie beslist daarover? Wat zijn de optimale verhoudingen? Ik wil in dit verhaal eerst heel kort een historisch en cijfermatig overzicht geven van de relatie voeding, landbouw en landschappen in de moderne en laatmoderne tijd en dan aandacht geven aan nieuwe ontwikkelingen zoals stadslandbouw in die relatie. Vervolgens behandel ik de filosofische vragen als welke verbindingen tussen mensen, voeding en landschappen zijn wenselijk en welke zijn mogelijk. Hier ga ik nader in op vijf factoren die in een optimale balans een goed voedsellandschap bepalen. De vijfde factor betreft de filosofische betekenis van de relatie mens landschap. Dan wil ik me concentreren op de realiteit, en nagaan wat er in Nederland moet gebeuren om die wenselijke relatie tot stand te brengen uitgaande van zes verschillende vormen van voedselproductie. Hoe scoren die op de vijf factoren. Uiteindelijk zal ik betogen dat korte, participatieve voedselketens tussen producenten en consumenten van groot voordeel zijn voor de landschappen hier en ver weg, voor mensen, natuur en voor dieren. Moderne en laatmoderne landbouw Bij voeding zijn we vanaf de tweede wereldoorlog er aan gewend geraakt om aan een sector te denken die voedingsmiddelen produceert en aflevert aan consumenten en aan andere sectoren, zoals aan de sector werk, die van gezondheid, van onderwijs en van recreatie. Deze moderne indeling van de maatschappij in sectoren met hun eigen experts en bestuurders is functioneel, efficiënt, en beheersbaar. Dat zijn de uitgangspunten van moderniteit. Werk, onderwijs, recreatie, gezondheid, voeding, en landschap worden als aparte sectoren genomen in een proces dat door sociologen als Max Weber 'rationalisering' is genoemd. Maar zo langzamerhand weten we dat er geen aparte sectoren bestaan, en dat er allerlei dynamieken en grensoverschrijdingen zijn, die de sector benadering niet kan meenemen. Bijvoorbeeld: subsidies voor landbouw gaan voor het merendeel naar suikerrijke en vette levensmiddelen; als gevolg daarvan kampt gezondheid met obesitas, maar de verbindingen tussen de twee

The thesis is that concepts used in currently dominant customized nutrition will not match easily with the concepts on food and health of various food styles that roam western societies and with a broader view of the relationship between food, health, and the meaning of life. Many people don’t want to be a health freak. The non-synchronized coevolution of nutrigenomics and of society due to this mismatch of food styles and values is a challenge for nutrition scientists. To synchronize and optimize the realignment of customized nutrition and society, it is proposed that customized nutrition’s research policy changes to a research partnership with society on the basis of fair representation of various food styles, in which health is not the only food value.

Een belangrijke verandering die zich in de negentiende eeuw voltrekt, wordt in dit essay aangeduid als ‘de geboorte van de consument’. Om de actuele verschuiving en ontwikkelingen inzake de consumptie te begrijpen, is het goed een blik te werpen op het verleden. De huidige situatie is het resultaat van drie revolutionaire veranderingen: 1. ‘de genese van het voedselproduct’ (de impact van de Industriële
Revolutie op de sociaal-economische organisatie van de productie
van voedsel); 2. ‘de geboorte van de consument’ (de veranderingen in de sociaaleconomische organisatie van de consumptie van voedsel); 3. de biotechnologische revolutie, vooral de opkomst van voedingsgenomics.

Recent publications by Pogge (Global ethics: seminal essays. St. Paul: Paragon House 2008) and by Singer (The life you can save: acting now to end world poverty. New York: Random House 2009) have resuscitated a debate over the justifiability of famine relief between Singer and ecologist Garrett Hardin in the 1970s. Yet that debate concluded with a general recognition that (a) general considerations of development ethics presented more compelling ethical problems than famine relief; and (b) some form of development would be essential to avoiding the problems of growth noted by Hardin. Better than renewing the debate, we should recognize two points. First, food needs do indeed evoke a moral response that is more direct and compelling than the philosophical positions often generated to rationalize a duty to bring aid. As such the argument for feeding hungry people cannot be generalized into a paradigm for development ethics without distortions that undercut the morally valid elements in Singer's original argument. Second, contrary to prevailing assumptions in present day development ethics, food aid and famine relief continue to be important priorities for international agencies, notably the World Food Program. Emergency food assistance, the nominal topic of Singer's original article, thus is an important issue for agricultural as well as development ethics, though one that should indeed be seen as distinct from more complex duties to address the conditions of chronic poverty and underdevelopment.

Filosofie en voeding: gaat dat samen? Filosofie gaat toch over het hogere, en voeding over het lagere, alledaagse? Dit zijn misverstanden. Voeding is een buitengewoon essentieel onderdeel van het menselijk leven. Wanneer we eten verbinden we ons met de werkelijkheid, dat wil zeggen de natuur om ons heen; sterker: we nemen haar op, tot ons, we proeven haar, we voelen haar. We vernieuwen ons lichaam door uit de natuur komende producten tot ons te nemen. Voeding is te lang verwaarloosd door de filosofie; want filosofie heeft te maken met essentiële problemen van het menselijk leven. Dus voeding en filosofie horen bij elkaar, zoals lichaam en natuur, en zo gezien is het een fatale vergissing, een blinde vlek op het netvlies van filosofen dat er niet eerder een filosofie van voeding in het Nederlandse taalgebied is verschenen. Kortom, aan het werk.

The role of Amartya Sen’s early work on famine notwithstanding, food security is generally seen as but one capability among many for scholars writing in development ethics. The early literature on the ethics of hunger is summarized to show how Sen’s Poverty and Famines was written in response to debates of past decades, and a brief discussion of food security as a capability follows. However, Sen’s characterization of smallholder food security also supports the development of agency in both a political and an economic sense. Economic agency is discussed and tied to longstanding literatures on the moral significance of farming within political economy. Finally, while the newly emergent literature on food sovereignty includes many themes, it is shown to be re-articulating arguments that stress smallholder’s economic agency as a development goal. This pattern of argument thus provides a way to reconcile at least some of the claims being advanced under the banner of food sovereignty with the human development approach, while also restoring food ethics to a more central place in the overall discourse of development ethics

Ethical aspects of animal cloning for food supply

In February 2007, following the announcement by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concerning possible authorisation of food products derived from cloned cattle, pigs and goats on the market, President Barroso asked the European Group on Ethics of science and new technologies (EGE) to issue an Opinion on ethical implications of cloning animals for food supply.

At the same time, the European Food and Safety Agency (EFSA), was asked to produce an Opinion on food safety, animal health, and environmental implications of live cloned animals obtained through somatic cell nuclear transfer technique (SCNT), their offspring and the products obtained from them.

After several months of internal working meetings, expert hearings, a public consultation launched in the Europa web site (800 contributions received) and a round table with representatives from academia, industry, NGOs, civil society, International organisations and industry1, on January 16, 2007, the EGE has adopted its latest Opinion on ethical aspects of animal cloning for food supply. The Group is aware of the EFSA draft Opinion and the FDA Report published the day before the adoption of the Opinion.

Considering the current level of suffering and health problems of surrogate dams and animal clones, the EGE has doubts as to whether cloning animals for food supply is ethically justified. Whether this applies also to progeny is open to further scientific research.

At present, the EGE does not see convincing arguments to justify the production of food from clones and their offspring2. If in the future food products derived from cloned animals were to be introduced to the European market, the EGE recommends that the following requirements are met:

Food safety - The safety of food products for human consumption as a pre-condition for their marketing must be guaranteed and scientific updates and follow up research into progeny should be carried out.

(The conclusion in this paragraph was dissented by K. Marczewski.)

Animal welfare and health - In accordance with the Amsterdam Treaty (animals as sentient beings) and the Lisbon Treaty, additional requirements should be met in intensive animal breeding, with the aim of following the guidance on animal welfare provided by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), e.g. the five freedoms: from hunger, thirst and malnutrition; from fear and distress; from physical and thermal discomfort; from pain, injury and disease; and to express normal patterns of behaviour.

Traceability - Current EU legislation on food regarding traceability of animals and their food products should be enforced. It should be ensured that EU legislation provides for the ability to identify individual animals where necessary.

Global trade - The import of cloned animals, their offspring and materials derived from cloned animals (e.g. semen and food products) should be conditional on proper documentation, in particular with regard to traceability provisions and animal welfare.

In addition the EGE recommends that:

Animal welfare - Further studies and analyses on long-term animal welfare and health implications for clones and their offspring, as well as more comparative analyses with other assisted and traditional reproductive technologies in animal farming, should be carried out for a proper assessment of this issue, in line with EFSA draft opinion. The Commission should take initiatives to prepare a Code of Conduct on responsible farm animal breeding, including animal cloning.

Farm animal biodiversity and sustainability – The Commission should take proper measures to preserve the genetic heritage of farm animal species, for example by funding projects that aim to preserve domesticated breeds in Europe and to promote sustainable agriculture.

Public participation - Public debates should be promoted on the impact of farm animal cloning on agriculture and environment, on societal impact of increasing meat consumption and rearing of bovines, as well as on the fair distribution of food resources. The Commission should take a pro-active role in promoting public discussion on the use of animal cloning, and its potential implications, by financing a number of ad hoc initiatives aimed at promoting public debate on the marketing of food products derived from animal cloning.

Public perception - The Commission should launch a thematic Eurobarometer survey and qualitative studies on animal cloning for food supply, in order to collect indicators on public perception concerning the introduction of such products to the food market as is being done in other countries.

Labelling – The EGE is aware of the technical difficulties of labelling products from offspring, nevertheless it recommends that the Commission takes the initiative to devise targeted procedures prior to the marketing of such food in the EU.

Intellectual property issues – It should be clarified whether the exclusion clauses in Directive 98/44/EC (Art. 6d) on patentability of biological inventions and the EPO rules (23 d) to animal cloning for food apply.

Global trade and consumer's freedom – The EGE is aware that import issues of food products derived from cloned animals, including compliance with World Trade Organisations provisions, may complicate the market situation, however, the EGE recommends that the Commission takes initiatives to ensure consumers' freedom and rights.

Research - Further research is needed, in particular basic research on animal cloning, as well as impact on human health, animal welfare for farmed species other than those covered by EFSA. Similarly, further ethical, legal and social implications of animal cloning for food supply as well as qualitative studies on public perception should be carried out.

I argue that a primary aim of philosophical reflections upon food and food practices should be to affirm their significance to and meaning for human life. The production, consumption, and appreciation of food enjoy a broader significance to human beings that ought not be reflectively disaggregated into separate ethical and aesthetic concerns. This claim is connected with complaints from various gastronomists and philosophers, who allege that certain deleterious contemporary attitudes towards food are partly consequences of our failure to appreciate the significance of food. I conclude that a key desideratum for any philosophy of food is its capacity to inspire and enable reflection upon the significance of food and food practices to human life.

Ljudi radi svojih interesa godišnje ubiju desetine milijardi životinja, a to znači desetine miliona na dan, milione na sat, desetine hiljada na minut, hiljade svake sekunde. Takvo masovno ubijanje i nanošenje patnje, kao i sama eksploatacija životinja, postalo je na Zapadu od sredine sedamdesetih godina prošlog stoljeća veoma važno etičko pitanje. Budući da se na našim prostorima o tome nije mnogo pisalo, knjiga koja je pred vama je, prije svega, pokušaj da se ta praznina popuni.