English as the World's Language

In the education policy of countries, FL education has never played such an important role as it has recently done. Most of the countries decreased FL learning age to the early years of education with a wide array of reasons ranging from the increasing interactions among nations to finding a prosperous occupation. Whatever the reason, every stakeholder expects the results of FL education to be satisfying. However, though some countries achieve better results, some others still fail to succeed as in Turkey. In Turkey, even at tertiary education most of the students are not so good at English which is also officially registered by some tests. Therefore, the current study aimed to scrutinize primary and secondary level English education in Turkey, to compare it to the countries that are among the most successful in learning FLs and in this respect to make suggestions for the improvement of FL education in Turkey. This qualitative study hinged on document analysis of relevant research and texts. As a result, it was found that on paper there are not so many differences among countries. However, having a centralized curriculum in all levels of education, problems in teacher education and training, and incompatibility of FL assessment practices to international tests and to the aims of language teaching are the issues that come into prominence in Turkish FL education and they require immediate action.

The African Gray is perhaps the most famous of the bigger parrots in the pet exchange. It is famous for its capacity to talk and its intelligence levels which are frequently contrasted with that of a 5-year-old child. Shockingly, this has prompted extreme catching of the flying creatures and the breakdown of their common populaces. As indicated by the World Wildlife Fund, worldwide exchange of this imperiled fledgling has been completely prohibited, however, hand raised African Grays from reproducers are as yet accessible.<a href="https://www.eldo.co.uk/" target="_blank">click here</a>

Size

The African dim parrot can develop as large as roughly 12 to 13 inches when estimated from the mouth to the tip of its tail at adulthood. The heaviness of this bird is between 10 to 20 ounces when completely developed with the Congo dark species being on the bigger side.

Average lifespan

The African Gray parrot is one type of bird that has a life span as an endowment of nature. When appropriately focused on, your feathered buddy can live up to 50 years and at times 75 years.

Temperament

The African Gray parrot is the savviest for evident reasons. Endless supply of their conduct, you can undoubtedly tell they are splendid animals separated from their capacity to retain and utilize many human words.

These birds are exceptionally passionate, and they show it by showing love towards their proprietors and guardians over the long haul. They are additionally well-disposed types of birds, however, when they are abused or dismissed, they won't stop for a second to show their displeasure at the smallest possibility.

This bird is intricate as it shows a ton of opposing characters. It is agreeable and sweet however is anything but a cuddly bird so you should regard the limits.

Alice Malsenior Walker, born (February 9, 1944) in Eatonton, Georgia is the youngest of eight children to sharecroppers, Willie Lee Walker and Minnie Lou Tallulah Grant. After an early day's misfortune which blinded her in one eye, she went on to become valedictorian of her neighboring school, and attended Spellman College and Sarah Lawrence College on scholarship. Alice Walker volunteered in the voter registration drives of the 1960s in Georgia, and went to job after college in the Welfare Department in New York City. She was married in 1967, and unfortunately divorced in 1976. Her first volume of poems was published in 1968 and her earliest novel was published just after her daughter's birth in 1970. Her poems, novels and short stories dealt with the themes of troubled relationships, violence, rape, multi-generational perspectives, isolation, sexism and racism, etc.

The English language has been established as the Lingua Franca used in many realms of the professional world. As such a comprehensive study is needed to thoroughly assess the English skills of the resort employees of Greece, one which would rigorously examine the deficiencies currently present within the resort employees understanding and functional application of the English language. From this examination, a needs analysis would be drawn. This needs analysis would cover the specific deficiencies noted in the primary investigation and specifically tailor a learning curriculum towards addressing the needs of the resort staff. This is the nature of the ensuing report.

A África do Sul é um país com uma enorme diversidade, inclusive linguística. O inglês é uma das onze línguas oficiais do país e costuma ser dividido em três variedades, levando em conta uma heterogeneidade que reflete a história. Este artigo tem como objetivo geral estudar a língua inglesa em uma perspectiva sul-africana. Para tanto, é importante conhecer o país e sua memória, em sua relação com o inglês, para entender a língua e as
peculiaridades resultantes. Pode-se perceber o quanto o apartheid contribuiu para a formação do inglês com tantas diferenças que seja possível separá-lo em grupos, bem como uma sociedade desigual, ainda muito segregada, marcada pela discriminação e que clama por uma democracia verdadeira e transformadora.

Although a great paucity exists in scholarly studies on education in Somalia, the scarcity is more evident in the English studies area, particularly English as a Second Language (ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (used interchangeably in this study), where almost none had existed until Mohamed Eno's MA TESOL Dissertation in 2005 and his recent article in the Journal of Somali Studies in 2017. Influenced by both the paucity and the latter study in 2017 1 , which recommended further examination of ESL/EFL area studies, this research investigates EFL students' perceptions of what they consider as more motivating or most motivating skill among the four second language acquisition (SLA) skills of reading, listening, speaking and writing. 2 Consequently, the results reveal that learners do not perceive more listening as a very motivating factor compared to more speaking, identified as the most motivating skill and ahead of more writing in the overall ratings. With very low results on the whole, more reading, on the other hand, is much below both speaking and writing in significance, though ahead of listening as a potential motivator. Interestingly, the findings also reveal persistent learner misunderstanding of the interlinkedness of the four skills, with a misperception that acquisition of one skill is independent of the others, as captured from an analysis of the vagaries in their responses.

English is unquestionably the current prevailing global language, spoken the world over and understood by the majority of the world population. In fact, it is the one used for international and intranational communication and to allow a successful mutual communication between non- native speakers.
When speaking about UK’s language, it is evident that it is considered as something daily and common, enough to be the second language for almost every non-native. Travelers are guided by English signs and advertisement; Politicians are able to understand each other even when from different countries thanks to English as a mutual language; Students and Academics can collaborate and share papers and research studies between them thanks to the implication of English.
It is possible to individuate two major positions regarding the feelings people have about learning and using this common language (and this feeling, often, is the same if taken another language instead of English). The first one is a positive motivation to reach a good proficiency in the language, understanding that having a unique global language it is indispensable to put you in touch with the entire world population, no matter if for pleasure or work necessities. On the other hand, as we will see in the following paragraph, it is not an easy language to learn, and this could easily generate in the learner/user a strong feeling of resistance or reluctance to make this

effort. Moreover, as it will be demonstrated later, the supremacy of a unique world language represents a treat for many minor languages and populations.
The aim of this paper is to analyze the process that made possible the achievement of English to reach the dominant position of global language and maintain it, through the mention of some necessary historical background and other more strictly practical reasons. Most importantly, a focus on what is happening to English language nowadays will be shown, to offer to the reader the chance to build his own idea about the issue.

Swift wrote Gulliver’s Travels, a satiric masterpiece, for a game of stories proposed in the ‘Martinus Scribelus Club’, whose members were notable satirists such as Pope, Arbuthnot, and Gay. Each member was given a topic, and Swift’s was to satirize the numerous and popular volumes describing seafaring voyages and their fantastic adventures. And, what came out of this linguistic exercise was the biting criticism of a novel, Gulliver’s Travels, initially titled- Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World.

Due to the idiosyncrasy of human psychology, the way of learning varies from person to person. Therefore, irrespective of what method it is, one single method cannot randomly teach all persons. So, to produce the most effective result, the Informed Eclecticism is the best approach to teach the English language as much as generally all subjects. Under this approach, the teachers must, first, evaluate the specific context to identify what technique it requires and, then, pick and choose technique(s) from the existing ones or, if not available, then invent one to apply to that context. Thus, the approach requires the teachers to know:
1. all the existing approaches and methods, and
2. how to evaluate the demand of any unpredictable context.

"In time of Destruction, Create something.''
The paper, as based on quotations, is compiled significantly on  self-analysis of poems, mainly, for students of ISC Board with a mannerism to develop a philosophical and socialistic answer against every contextual question.

Postcolonial varieties of English, used in countries such as Nigeria, India and Singapore, are subject to both local ("endonormative") and external ("exonormative") forces, the latter often in the form of British/American English. This gives rise to a stylistic continuum, where informal speech is more endonormatively oriented than formal/educated speech, which, nevertheless, is clearly distinguishable from British/American English. The formal end of the continuum is often regarded as the incipient local standard. Nigerian English (NigE) is the most widely spoken African variety of English, but empirical/quantitative descriptions are rare. In this pilot study, we present an acoustic analysis of eight phonological diphthongs produced in formal contexts by nine educated speakers of NigE with L1 Yoruba and drawn from the ICE Nigeria corpus. Results show that the NigE speakers produced more monophthongal realisations of English phonological diphthongs than speakers of British English (BrE) do, as measured by trajectory length in F1-F2 space. Phonetically, most of these vowels can be considered monophthongs. The results can be explained through two factors at work during the foundation phase of NigE: (1) historical L1 influence and (2) the native English input present in the country, which involved more monophthongal realisations of some phonological diphthongs than in present-day BrE.

The scope of this article is Prescriptive Grammar.
Any English user may need a quick reference concerning conditionals in general. However, many users have an incorrect idea that, when we use past perfect in the if clause, it is ALWAYS incorrect to use “would or would not + base form of verb” in the main clause.
Therefore, the objective of this article is:
1. to define CONDITIONAL (IF) sentences in general and their BASICs; and
2. to correct the incorrect idea that, when we use past perfect in the if clause, it is ALWAYS incorrect to use “would or would not + base form of verb” in the main clause. We use this pattern in MIXED CONDITIONAL.
Whether we use “would/wouldn’t + have + past participle” or “would/wouldn’t + base form of verb” depends on whether the event is a Third Conditional or Mixed Conditional event.

English has unquestionably become a global phenomenon, generating a fundamental discussion of EIL pedagogy for English language teaching practitioners around the world. Teaching English as an International Language captures this important moment in the history of English language teaching. Readers will find an accessible introduction to the past, present, and future of EIL and an essential discussion about EIL pedagogy along with practical applications in methods and materials, culture and identity, and curriculum development. Reflective Break questions serve as guidelines for teachers' particular contexts, needs, and learners.

This is from a book on forms of art historical writing worldwide. This section is on the fact that English has become the common language for art historical conferences and even publications. This raises questions not only of continuing Eurocentrism (or America-centrism), but also of limitations on careers caused by relative lack of facility in reading, writing, and speaking.
The book is available on Amazon.

Philippine English is one of the few postcolonial varieties of English mainly influenced by American (and not British) English from its inception. Previous research on recent diachronic change indicates that this influence continues. Philippine English followed some of the recent syntactic change going on in American English, although some variables also indicate an emergence of properly Philippine norms (i.e. endonormativity). The present study extends this research by analysing change in lexis and spelling in two parallel corpora from the 1960s and 1990s. Results indicate that, despite the early American influence on Philippine English, it still followed British norms in a substantial minority of cases in the 1960s. By the 1990s, these remnants of British influence have almost wholly been replaced by an adherence to American norms. The results can be accounted for by the retreat of British influence in the world and an increase in American influence during this period. Finally, and more broadly, the article discusses the notion of Americanisation and how it can be traced and accounted for. In particular, it argues that spelling is particularly useful as a variable to measure degrees of Americanisation.

When discussing English, it is no longer possible to consider British English as the only acceptable standard. We have to take into account American, Canadian or Australian English as well as the numerous other varieties. Despite the fact they are considered to be essentially the same language by both native and non–native speakers, there are numerous differences between the innumerable varieties of English currently being used around the world. This study focuses on the Canadian English variety. Should it be considered a New or an Old English? The diversity of Canadian English has been analysed through its grammatical structures, syntax and vocabulary. There are numerous differences not only when compared to traditionally recognised standards such as British English and American English but also within the territory of Canada itself, with it being influenced by various phenomena such as immigration and colonization. Canadian English is a variety full of linguistic forms that are not only related to the local contexts but are under continual evolution.

This book is a first. Language Education Policy is a new field of study that establishes a cross section between educational policy and language policy studies. It inherits from an abundance of intellectual and methodological traditions while opening new perspectives that focus on the interface between policymaking and its enactment in a classroom or an educational setting. The study of the interface between the macro-policy level of the political stage and the micro-policies of education in practice implies a focus on how policy decisions are translated into regulations that affect the lives of people. 21 authors have contributed to this outstanding volume that situates the stakes in the new field of inquiry with examples in 14 countries.
"This essential book shows why language education policy will never work if it is top-down and ignores local contexts and stakeholders. It illustrates the fundamental importance of taking local contexts into consideration and actively engaging and empowering local stakeholders in the development and implementation of all language education policy. A better blueprint for successful language education policy would be hard to find."- Dr. Andy Kirkpatrick, Griffith University

Corrective feedback (CF) has been the focus of different ESL/EFL educators and researchers. It has been a source of debate among them for about four decades. Many controversies are associated with different variables of corrective feedback. This paper discusses some of these controversial issues in light of what experts and recent research have found. Given the need for more studies in written CF, this paper investigates the effect of direct focused written corrective feedback on EFL students' writings. Tag questions, conjunctions, quantifiers, and articles were the focus of the direct written CF. The writings of 49 EFL students in pre feedback phase, post feedback phase and delayed test were collected and analyzed. The results revealed a significant difference between the pre and post feedback phases indicating the short-term effect of direct focused written corrective feedback. However, no significant difference was found between the pre feedback phase and the delayed test. The paper, then, concludes with some general guidelines drawn from the present researcher's review of literature, and her reflection on corrective feedback based on her experience as a learner and a teacher.

The Eurovision Song Contest, whether we want it to or not, happens every year, and each year there appears to be more controversy surrounding the growing use of English-language lyrics. This dissertation explores pre-existing ideas that attempt to explain this phenomenon while also approaching the topic from a new angle. Sociolinguistic theories that are used to analyse the spread of English across the wider European continent are adapted and moulded to fit the Eurovision framework, in the hope that they will deepen our understanding of this very unique 'speech community'.

Matching the expectations of teachers and learners is vital for successful learning. Few studies have investigated the effects of corrective feedback on Iranian EFL learners. Therefore, this study aimed to bridge this gap. To this end, the sample of 180 male and female teachers, who taught language courses in an English Language Teaching program in language institutes in Zanjan, and 350 learners, chosen through stratified random sampling, formed the participants of the study. Two standard instruments were used in this study-PET Test and Fukuda's (2004) Feedback Questionnaire. The findings suggest that learners believed that corrective feedback had a significant effect on their writing but the teachers did not think so. It is concluded that most of the feedback given by teachers were concentrated on grammatical errors and that the teachers' views on feedback are based on the context, which might origin from absence of sufficient teacher training. With this in mind, giving feedback, or rather the right kind of feedback should perhaps play a better role in teacher education. The fact that feedback is based on each context may be positive as learners are different and teacher trainees might still take advantage from studying the provision of feedback.

Zuckermann, Ghil'ad and Walsh, Michael 2011. ‘Stop, Revive, Survive!: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures’, Australian Journal of Linguistics 31.1: 111-127.

LINK TO THE ARTICLE: http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/Revival_Linguistics.pdf

Final version:
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a932426202~frm=titlelink

DOI: 10.1080/07268602.2011.532859

Australian Journal of Linguistics (AJL)
Volume 31, Issue 1, January 2011, pages 111 - 127

Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures

GHIL‘AD ZUCKERMANN and MICHAEL WALSH

University of Adelaide and University of Sydney


ABSTRACT

The revival of Hebrew is so far the most successful known reclamation of a sleeping tongue and is a language movement that has been in progress for more than 120 years. By comparison, language revival movements in Australia are in their infancy. This article provides comparative insights and makes information about the Hebrew revival accessible to Australian linguists and Aboriginal revival activists.

Needless to say, the first stage of any desire by professional linguists to assist in language reawakening must involve a long period of thoroughly observing, carefully listening to the people, learning, mapping and characterizing the specific indigenous community. Only then can one inspire and assist. That said, this article proposes that there are linguistic constraints applicable to all revival attempts. Mastering them would be useful to endangered languages in general and to Aboriginal linguistic revival in particular.

This article contributes towards the establishment of Revival Linguistics, a new linguistic discipline and paradigm. Zuckermann`s term Revival Linguistics is modelled upon 'Contact Linguistics' (<language contact). Revival linguistics inter alia explores the universal constraints and mechanisms involved in language reclamation, renewal and revitalization. It draws perspicacious comparative insights from one revival attempt to another, thus acting as an epistemological bridge between parallel discourses in various local attempts to revive sleeping tongues all over the globe.


Keywords: Revival Linguistics, Language Revival, Aboriginal Studies, Hebrew, Social Empowerment, Hybridity and Multiple Causation, Purism versus Compromise, Language and Identity, Contact Linguistics, Yiddish, Aboriginal English, Anthropological Linguistics, Sociolinguistics, Language Endangerment, Resilience Linguistics, Revitalization, Renewal.


Dedicated to Professor Michael Clyne z"l



ARTICLE

"I must study politics and war that my sons may have liberty to study mathematics and philosophy. My sons ought to study mathematics and philosophy, geography, natural history, naval architecture, navigation, commerce, and agriculture, in order to give their children a right to study painting, poetry, music, architecture, statuary, tapestry, and porcelain."

(John Adams, 1735–1826, second president of the United States)


The main aim of this article is to suggest that there are perspicacious lessons applicable from the relatively successful Hebrew revival to the reclamation, maintenance and empowerment of Aboriginal languages and cultures. 'Language is power; let us have ours', wrote Aboriginal politician Aden Ridgeway on 26 November 2009 in the Sydney Morning Herald. Previous revival efforts have largely failed (for obvious reasons, we are not going to single out specific failures here). While there have been some good results from several projects since 1992 (e.g. Kaurna, see below), Aboriginal people overall do not see as many positive outcomes from revival programmes as they would like. In large part this is the result of shortage of sufficient (continuity of) funding, lack of technical expertise, and lack of integration of school-based programmes with community language programmes. However, there are purely linguistic reasons too: Many revival efforts were not supported by a sound theoretical understanding of how successful language revival works. As pointed out by Thieberger (2002), decisions about the appropriate target for language maintenance programmes are too often driven by structural linguistics, where the supposed ideal is intergenerational transmission of the language with all its original structural complexity retained, thus creating unrealistic expectations among the Aboriginal community.

This article is the first of its kind as it will innovatively draw crucial insights from 'Modern Hebrew' (henceforth, Israeli – see Zuckermann 1999), so far the most successful known reclamation attempt of a sleeping tongue. Zuckermann's (2008a, 2009, 2010, 2011) research on Israeli demonstrates which language components are more revivable than others. Words and conjugations, for example, are easier to revitalize than intonation, discourse, associations and connotations. We should encourage revivalists and Aboriginal leaders to be realistic rather than puristic, and not to chastise English loanwords and pronunciation, for example, within the emergent language. Applying such precious conclusions from Hebrew will closely assist Australian revivalists in being more efficient, urging them not to waste time and resources on Sisyphean efforts to resuscitate linguistic components that are unlikely to be revivable.

While the results the endeavors we are proposing here have considerable value as a research enterprise, one can also consider them in terms of a cost-benefit analysis (Mühlhäusler and Damania 2004, Walsh 2008): Language revitalization contributes to social reconciliation, cultural tourism (Clark and Kostanski 2005), capacity building, and improved community health for Indigenous peoples (Walsh forthcoming B). In the process of language revival, some Aboriginal people will go from being dysfunctional (cf. Sutton 2009) to well-balanced, positive people. The benefits to the wider community and to Australian society are immense.

Reversing language shift (RLS) (Fishman 1991, 2001, Hagège 2009, Evans 2010, Walsh 2005a, Zuckermann 2011) is thus of great social benefit. Language revival does not only do historical justice and address inequality but can also result in the empowerment of people who have lost their heritage and purpose in life.

Some Aboriginal people distinguish between usership and ownership. There are even those who claim that they own a language although they only know one single word of it: its name. Consequently, some Indigenous Australians do not find it important to revive their comatose tongue. We, on the other hand, have always believed in Australia’s very own roadside dictum: ‘Stop, revive, survive!'


Background: The Hebrew Revival

I suppose the process of acceptance will pass through the usual four stages: 1. This is worthless nonsense. 2. This is an interesting, but perverse, point of view. 3. This is true, but quite unimportant. 4. I always said so. (Haldane 1963: 464)

'Hebrew' is the most quoted example of a successful language revival. On the other hand, if we are to be brutally truthful with ourselves, the modern-day vernacular spoken in downtown Tel Aviv is a very different language – both typologically and genetically – to that of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) or of the Mishnah, the first major redaction of Jewish oral traditions.

Hebrew was spoken since approximately the 14th century BC. It belonged to the Canaanite division of the northwestern branch of the Semitic languages, which constitute a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Following a gradual decline, it ceased to be spoken by the second century AD. The failed Bar-Kokhba Revolt against the Romans in Judea in 132-5 AD marks the symbolic end of the period of spoken Hebrew. We believe that the Mishnah was codified around 200 AD because Hebrew was then dying as a mother tongue. Rabbi Judah haNasi and his collaborators might have realized that if they did not act then to redact the oral tradition, it would soon have been too late because Jews were already speaking languages other than Hebrew. (In fact, the Gemara, the other component of the Babylonian Talmud, which was codified around 500 AD, was written in Aramaic rather than in Hebrew.)

For approximately 1,750 years thereafter, Hebrew was ‘clinically dead’. A most important liturgical and literary language, it occasionally served as a lingua franca – a means of communication between people who do not share a mother tongue – for Jews of the Diaspora, but not as a native language.

Fascinating and multifaceted Israeli, which emerged in Palestine (Eretz Israel) at the end of the nineteenth century, possesses distinctive socio-historical characteristics such as the lack of a continuous chain of native speakers from spoken Hebrew to Israeli, the non-Semitic mother tongues spoken by the Hebrew revivalists, and the European impact on literary Hebrew. Consequently, it presents the linguist with a unique laboratory in which to examine a wider set of theoretical problems concerning language genesis, social issues like language, identity and politics, and important practical matters, such as whether it is possible to revive a no-longer spoken language.

The genetic classification of Israeli has preoccupied scholars since its genesis. The still regnant traditional thesis suggests that Israeli is Semitic: Hebrew revived. The revisionist antithesis defines Israeli as Indo-European: Yiddish relexified; that is, Yiddish, the revivalists’ mother tongue, is the 'substratum', whilst Hebrew is the 'superstratum' providing the vocabulary (cf. Horvath and Wexler 1997). According to Zuckermann's mosaic (rather than Mosaic) synthesis, Israeli is not only multi-layered but also multi-parental. A Semito-European, or Eurasian, hybr...

In this paper we will explore the nature of English as it is used in one Muslim country and argue that, far from being a colonizing language, English used in Pakistan reflects Islamic values and embodies South Asian Islamic sensitivities. Through analysis of the current discourses on the politics of the English language and a study of Pakistani English, a framework is developed that can be used to study the relationship between Islam and English in other contexts.

Nigeria is a country shaped by its colonial history. This history has resulted in unique contact situations and language varieties, one of which being Nigerian English. This global variety of English is shaped by its interaction with the many indigenous Nigerian languages, creating a unique World English.

This  paper addresses the problematic issue of teaching English pronunciation to Japanese learners, advocating a shift away from the native speaker as a model. An argument is presented for the development and recognition of a distinct Japanese English pronunciation standard that can be used as a guideline to inform oral English teaching practices in the Japanese school system. Suggestions are made at the end of the paper for future research to contribute towards the development of such guidelines.

In his autobiography - An Only Child written in 1961, Frank O’Connor describes himself as a shy child who was by his very disposition “a classic example of the mother’s boy”. This was in part because like several thousands of Irishmen, Connor’s father -Michael O’Donovan left his nation at the turn of the twentieth century for soldiering at the frontiers in the hope of getting steady employment and avoiding the financial poverty back at home. The consequential absence of his father led the young Connor to spend more time with his mother resulting in his having a fixation with her. This attachment was so obsessional that when his father used to come home, Connor used to find it perplexing adjusting to him and this gave rise to alienating domestic situations in the household. This neurotic psychological tension of the young Connor with his father is mirrored, in its propensity and complexity, by the internal struggles of the innocent and humorous character of a five-year-old boy - ‘Larry’ and his father –‘Mike’ in the given short story.

Based on a critical review of selected relevant studies and with a historical perspective, this discussion paper, as a piece of secondary research (Nunan, 1992, p. 8), aimed to point out where the world of language teaching is in terms of the competences that learners are expected to gain. It was determined that intercultural communicative competence, i.e. the knowledge, motivation and skills needed to interact effectively and appropriately with members of different cultures (Wiseman, 2002, p. 208), is currently the highly favored type of competence after the sequential dominance of grammatical (linguistic) competence and communicative competence. The major inference drawn from the review was that although a number of particular studies draw heavily on intercultural communicative competence, they are paradoxical or not clear about where and how they differ from the tenets of its much-criticized predecessor, i.e. communicative language teaching, and about whose culture is to be taught along with the language. Taking sides for a pedagogical philosophy predicated on intercultural communicative competence, the author concludes that this is still merely a set of beliefs and procedures in need of multidisciplinary research-driven clarification and maturation and in this respect, he refers to and discusses some fundamental principles and standpoints on which a new model based on intercultural communicative competence can be built.

В статията се разглеждат проблеми при морфосинтактичната адаптация на нови лексеми, заети от английски език, към граматичната система на българския език. Материалът надгражда и допълва заключенията, изложени в Христов (2015), и набелязва най-новите тенденции при приспособяването на някои проблематични англицизми. Ще се спрем на адаптацията по род и число на съществителните, (не)склоняемостта на прилагателните и приспособяването на глаголите. Резултатите показват, че принципите за одомашняване на чуждата лексика, очертани в специализираната литература, като цяло се спазват последователно, но не липсват и изключения. Макар и значителен брой прилагателни да получават славянски словообразувателни наставки, голяма част от новозаетите прилагателни остават несклоняеми и дори може да се размият границите между прилагателно и съществително във функция на определение-закономерна нова стъпка в утвърдилата се вече тенденция към неизменяеми форми с чужд произход. Ограниченият брой глаголни заемки чрез словообразувателни наставки също успешно се вписват в българската глаголна система, но същевременно се отчитат и неочаквани резултати, които свидетелстват за явления, нехарактерни за българския език. На съществителни, назоваващи само лица от женски пол, е възможно да се припише формален мъжки род, без да са от т.нар. общ граматически род, което е крайно нетипично за езика ни. В събрания материал фигурират и нулеви окончания за множествено число, както и английското окончание-s. При анализа се обръща специално внимание на конкуренцията между домашните и чуждите форми и структури и на въпроса дали тези иновационни процеси биха имали потенциал да навлязат потрайно в българската граматична система. Ключови думи: англицизми, граматическа адаптация, съществителни, прилагателни, глаголи, български език PROBLEMS OF THE MORPHOSYNTACTIC ADAPTATION OF RECENT ENGLISH LOANWORDS IN BULGARIAN BOZHIL HRISTOV SOFIA UNIVERSITY ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI

Penggunaan teknologi digital di zaman seperti ini sudah semakin canggih,bahkan di dunia kontruksi sekalipun.Dalam dunia kontruksi sekarang sudah menerapkan BIM (Building Information Modeling) yang mana BIM ini bisa meningkatkan kinerja dan daya saing perusahaan dalam menangani proses kontruksi secara efektif dan efisien. Building Information Modeling (BIM) adalah sistem informasi yang memproses input menjadi informasi dalam bentuk pemodelan bangunan sebagai alat bantu dalam proses pengambilan keputusan dalam setiap tahapan proyek konstruksi. BIM dalam proyek konstruksi menghadapi berbagai hambatan akibatnya manfaat penerapannya tidak optimal. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui faktorfaktor penghambat penerapan BIM pada proyek kontruksi.Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian studi kasus literatur. Dari sinilah diketahui apa faktor utama penghambat penerapan BIM pada proyek kontruksi.

It is a heavily debated issue: To define language, which one is the controlling authority between the Descriptive Grammar (DG) and Prescriptive Grammar (PG)?

Observing those debates, it seems like the debaters make it unnecessarily complex. I think the logic in favor of the DG is pretty straightforward. And the objective of this paper is to explain in simple manner the reason that the DG is the dominating authority.

The PG is just a guideline that is unrelated to or merely coincides with the time of use. And it is the DG that defines exactly what the language is. In other words, simple is that, to evaluate a linguistic item for its current validity, we must inquire how the native speakers naturally (meaning popularly and consistently) use it at the time of the inquiry.

This thesis focuses on the influence of English as a global language on the Greek digital press. It is a qualitative study of a corpus of 126 texts from the Greek press and a complementary corpus of 15 texts from the anglophone press published on the Internet between 2011-2015. The data are drawn from three journalistic genres: news articles, opinion articles and interviews, and 5 column-themes: art and fashion, economy and politics, world and environment, science and technology and health and sports. The theoretical framework is based on the linguistic borrowing and the rhetorical theory of a digital text. As for the influence of English, traces on the lexicon, syntax, semantics, discourse and headlines are mainly pointed out. Concerning the layout of a digital text, we found various reading models, as well as some differences between the Greek and anglophone press. Finally, these results underline a combination of the implantation of English borrowing on the Greek press from a top down and a bottom up point of view.

Exploring Quicksand. Translation Criticism and Literary Criticism in the Face of the Petrification of Contemporary World Literature


In contemporary discussions on the condition and further perspectives of World Literature, the mood of disappointment and disillusionment seems to dominate. Reservations concern World Literature in its complexity – its canon, potential multilingualism, existing hierarchies and often contradictory conceptualizations. The crisis of World Literature is not, however, the result of a scandal, but rather of many years of progressive petrification resulting in actual monolingualism, formulaic narrative patterns, consolidation of the center-periphery hierarchy and abandonment of the real pluralism of interpretation. One of the areas that seems to meet the challenge of World Literature is undoubtedly translation criticism. Therefore, the aim of the article is to reflect on how contemporary theories and conceptualizations of World Literature as well as its far-fetched utopia can benefit from translation criticism’s input. The article also argues that translation criticism may become a field that dynamizes contemporary World Literature and restores its reordering or even revolutionary potential.

Language and power have been interlinked and are noticeable in the form of presence of languages like English, French and Spanish in different countries around the world due to rules of British, French and Spanish colonies. The colonial empires made systematic attempts for linguistic and cultural colonization as well making people believe that the language of colonial rulers was superior to their local languages. The spread of English around the globe today had its roots in the colonial empire of British. Through the power, which these rulers enjoyed, they established the hegemony of their language. And in the present day, the economic and military powers of these hegemonic powers are also serving as the tools to establish their linguistic hegemony. With this background, the present paper seeks to review how hegemony of power, which Britain and America enjoyed and enjoy, is correlational with the hegemony of English language spread and use around the globe.

Research on World Englishes, including that on Philippine English, looks at how the English language is indigenised by local populations to suit their needs and purposes. This work typically looks at the changes and variations in the English language as it is adopted and used by people who speak other languages at home and in their communities. In doing so, research on World Englishes often focuses on specific linguistic features, e.g., grapho-phonology (Dayag, 2012; Tayao, 2004), morpho-syntax (Borlongan, 2011), lexico-grammar (Bolton and Butler, 2008), semantics (Dita, 2011), and discourse semantics (Cruz, 2015). It also looks at the historical and political dimensions of the use of English in these contexts (Gonzalez, 2004; Martin, 2014; Tupas, 2004). What is often missing in the literature is a study of the impact of English or other colonial languages on the local communities, including on their languages and on social and cultural practices and beliefs. In this chapter, we will examine how English (and Spanish, in the context of the Philippines) influence(d) local languages, with a focus on local varieties of Englishes. We will do this by drawing on the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (SWH) which highlights the relationship between language, thought, and culture. Specifically, we will share examples of the impact of the introduction of colonial languages on local languages and examine their potential socio-political implications. In doing so, the paper will both discuss the implications of SWH on WE and the potential contributions of WE on understanding SWH.

Este trabalho analisa narrativas sobre o contexto e as razões de desistência do estudo do inglês como língua estrangeira, especificamente entre estudantes e professoras/es da Faculdade de Letras da Universidade Federal de Goiás. O objetivo é compreender os significados culturais e as práticas identitárias das/os participantes em relação ao papel hegemônico do inglês como língua estrangeira no Brasil. Os resultados mostram que a desistência ocorreu em diferentes contextos educacionais e que a dificuldade com a língua inglesa é vista como limitação individual, reforçando a noção de aprendizado focado no indivíduo, nesses casos narrados como fracassados. Há ainda identificações antagônicas e aparentemente contraditórias sobre a construção da língua inglesa no mundo hoje. A partir da noção de habitus, aponta-se que as narrativas sobre o inglês legitimam o lugar de autoridade dessa língua. Palavras-chave: estudantes de Letras; língua inglesa; hegemonia; resistência.

Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2009. 'Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns. Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2: 40-67.

LINK TO THE ARTICLE:
http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/Hybridity_versus_Revivability.pdf


The aim of this article is to suggest that due to the ubiquitous multiple causation, the revival of a no-longer spoken language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists’ mother tongue(s). Thus, one should expect revival efforts to result in a language with a hybridic genetic and typological character. The article highlights salient morphological constructions and categories, illustrating the difficulty in determining a single source for Israeli grammar. The European impact in these features is apparent inter alia in structure, semantics or productivity. Being an article rather than a long book, this paper does not attempt to be grammatically exhaustive but rather to cast new light on the partial success of language revival in general and on the genetics of Israeli in particular.

Multiple causation is manifested in the Congruence Principle, according to which if a feature exists in more than one contributing language, it is more likely to persist in the emerging language. This article discusses multiple causation in (1) constituent order, (2) tense system, (3) copula enhancement, (4) calquing, and (5) phono-semantic matching in ‘Israeli’ (Zuckermann 1999, somewhat misleadingly a.k.a. ‘Revived Hebrew’ / ‘Modern Hebrew’). It suggests that the reality of linguistic genesis is far more complex than a simple family tree system allows. ‘Revived’ languages are unlikely to have a single parent.

Generally speaking, whereas most forms of Israeli are Semitic, many of its patterns are European. It is proposed that (1) Whereas Hebrew was synthetic, Israeli – following Yiddish etc. – is much more analytic; (2) Israeli is a habere language (cf. Latin habere ‘to have’, taking the direct object), in stark contrast to Hebrew; (3) European languages sometimes dictate the gender of Israeli coinages; (4) The (hidden) productivity and semantics of the allegedly completely Hebrew system of Israeli verb-templates are, in fact, often European; (5) In Hebrew there was a polarity-of-gender agreement between nouns and numerals, e.g. ‘éser banót ‘ten girls’ versus ‘asar-á baním ‘ten (feminine) boys’. In Israeli there is a simpler – European – system, e.g. éser banót ‘ten girls’, éser baním ‘ten boys’; (6) Yiddish has shaped the semantics of the Israeli verbal system in the case of inchoativity; (7) Following ‘Standard Average European’, the Israeli proclitics be- ‘in’, le- ‘to’ and mi-/me ‘from’, as well as the coordinating conjunction ve- ‘and’, are phonologically less dependent than in Hebrew; (8) Word-formation in Israeli abounds with European mechanisms such as portmanteau blending.

Israeli possesses distinctive socio-historical characteristics such as the lack of a continuous chain of native speakers from spoken Hebrew to Israeli, the non-Semitic mother tongues spoken by the revivalists, and the European impact on literary Hebrew. Consequently, it presents the linguist with a fascinating and multifaceted laboratory in which to examine a wider set of theoretical problems concerning language genesis and hybridity, social issues like language vis-à-vis politics, and practical matters, e.g. whether it is possible to revive a no-longer spoken language. The multisourced nature of Israeli and the role of the Congruence Principle in its genesis have implications for historical linguistics, language planning and the study of language, culture and identity.


References

Bachi, Roberto. 1956. ‘tkhiyát halashón haivrít beaspaklárya statístit’ (The Revival of the Hebrew Language from a Statistical Perspective). Lešonénu 20 (1): 65-82.

Bachi, Roberto. 1977. The Population of Israel. Jerusalem: Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem – Demographic Center to the Prime-Minister’s Office in Israel.

Bat-El, Outi. 1994. ‘Stem Modification and Cluster Transfer in Modern Hebrew’. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 12.571-96.

Bat-El, Outi. 2003. ‘Semitic Verb Structure within a Universal Perspective’, pp. 29-59 of J. Shimron (ed.) Language Processing and Acquisition in Languages of Semitic, Root-based, Morphology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Berman, Ruth A. 1997. ‘Modern Hebrew’, pp. 312-33 of The Semitic Languages, edited by R. Hetzron. London: Routledge.

Bernini, Giuliano and Ramat, Paolo. 1996. Negative Sentences in the Languages of Europe: A Typological Approach (Empirical Approaches to Language Typology 16). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Bialik, Chaim Nachman. 1959. kol kitvéy byálik (The Complete Works of Bialik). Tel Aviv: Dvir.

Blanc, Haim. 1965. ‘Yiddish Influences in Israeli Hebrew’, pp. 185-201 of The Field of Yiddish: Studies in Language, Folklore and Literature (Second Collection), edited by U. Weinreich. The Hague: Mouton.

Bolozky, Shmuel. 1978. ‘Word Formation Strategies in Hebrew Verb System: Denominative Verbs’, Afroasiatic Linguistics 5.1–26.

Chomsky, William (Zev). 1957. Hebrew – The Eternal Language. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America.

Chomsky, William (Zev). 1967. halashón haivrít (The Hebrew Language). Jerusalem. (An expansion and translation of Hebrew – The Eternal Language, 1957)

Comrie, Bernard. 1981. Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. Syntax and Morphology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. 2001. ‘Areal Diffusion versus Genetic Inheritance: An African Perspective’, pp. 358-92 of Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance. Problems in Comparative Linguistics, edited by A. Y. Aikhenvald and R. M. W. Dixon. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dorian, Nancy. 1993. ‘Internally and Externally Motivated Change in Language Contact Settings: Doubts about the Dichotomy’, pp. 131-155 of Ch. Jones (ed.), Historical Linguistics: Problems and Perspectives, London: Longman.

Glinert, Eliezer (Lewis). 1991. ‘lemekór haivrít hakhadashá hamedubéret: iyuním batakhbír hasamúy shel ‘lefí hatáf’ ledavíd yélin’ (On the Source of Spoken Modern Hebrew: Studies of the Covert Syntax in Lefí Hatáf by David Yellin). Leshonenu 55.107-26.

Goldenberg, Gideon. 1996. ‘haivrít kelashón shémit khayá’ (Hebrew as a Living Semitic Language), pp. 148-90 of halashón haivrít behitpatkhutá uvehitkhadshutá (Evolution and Renewal: Trends in the Development of the Hebrew Language), edited by J. Blau. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

Haig, Geoffrey. 2001. ‘Linguistic Diffusion in Present-Day East Anatolia: From Top to Bottom’, pp. 195-24 of Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance. Problems in Comparative Linguistics, edited by A. Y. Aikhenvald and R. M. W. Dixon. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Haramati, Shlomo. 1992. ivrít khayá bimrutsát hadorót (Living Hebrew throughout the Generations). Israel: Masada.

Haramati, Shlomo. 2000. ivrít safá medubéret (Hebrew – A Spoken Language). Israel: Ministry of Defence.

Harrison, G. A., J. M. Tanner, D. R. Pillbeam and P. T. Baker. 1988. Human Biology: An Introduction to Human Evolution, Variation, Growth, and Adaptability. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Haspelmath, Martin. 1998. ‘How Young is Standard Average European?’. Language Sciences 20.271-87.

Haspelmath, Martin. 2001. ‘The European Linguistic Area: Standard Average European’, pp. 1492-510 of Language Typology and Language Universals: An International Handbook, Vol. 2, edited by M. Haspelmath, E. König, W. Oesterreicher and W. Raible. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Hjelmslev, Louis. 1938. ‘Etudes sur la notion de parenté linguistique’. Revue des Etudes Indo-Européennes 1.271-86.

Horvath, Julia and Wexler, Paul. 1997. Editors of Relexification in Creole and Non-Creole Languages – With Special Attention to Haitian Creole, Modern Hebrew, Romani, and Rumanian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Howell, Robert B. 1993. ‘German Immigration and the Development of Regional Variants of American English: Using Contact Theory to Discover Our Roots’, pp. 190-212 of J. Salmons (ed.), The German Language in America, Madison: Max Kade Institute.

Kerswill, Paul. 2002. ‘Koineization and Accommodation’, pp. 669-702 of J.K. Chambers, P. Trudgill and N. Schilling-Estes (eds), The Handbook of Language Variation and Change. Oxford: Blackwell.

Kuteva, Tania. 1998. ‘Large Linguistic Areas in Grammaticalization: Auxiliation in Europe’. Language Sciences 20.289-311.

Laméd Leshonkhá (Teach Your Language) 1951-90 (Leaflets 1-180). A. Dotan (ed.: Leaflets 1-8), Sh. Bahat (ed.: Leaflets 9-180). Jerusalem: Academy of the Hebrew Language.

Lewis, Geoffrey L. 1967. Turkish Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Maschler, Yael. 1994. ‘Metalanguaging and Discourse Markers in Bilingual Conversation’, Language in Society 23: 325–66.

Maschler, Yael. 2003. ‘The Discourse Marker nu: Israeli Hebrew Impatience in Interaction’, Text 23: 89-128.

Muchnik, Malka. 2004. ‘Is Modern Hebrew a Synthetic or Analytic Language? Suffixes and Independent Pronouns in the Writing of Haim Be’er’. Folia Linguistica XXXVIII.257-76.

Mufwene, Salikoko S. 2001. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rabin, Chaim. 1974. ‘halashón haivrít bat yaménu’ (Contemporary Hebrew), pp. 660-4 of haentsiklopédya haivrít (Hebrew Encyclopedia), Vol. xxvi.

Ravid, Dorit. 1995. ‘Neutralization of Gender Distinction in Modern Hebrew Numerals’. Language Variation and Change 7.79-100.

Rubin, Israel. 1945. ‘végņ der vírkung fun yídish áfņ gerédtņ hebréish in érets yisróel’ (On the Effect of Yiddish on Spoken Hebrew in Eretz Yisrael). Yivo Bleter (Journal of the Yiddish Scientific Institute) XXV.303-9.

Sapir, Yair and Zuckermann, Ghil‘ad. 2008. ‘Icelandic: Phonosemantic Matching’, pp. 19-43 (Chapter 2) of Judith Rosenhouse and Rotem Kowner (eds), Globally Speaking: Motives ...

Building upon the sociocultural theory of Vygotsky, the aim of this study was to explore the immediate and delayed effects of peer scaffolding on EFL learners' comprehension and production of requests and apologies. The participants were 86 Iranian EFL learners who, drawing on their scores in the Pragmatic Listening Test (PLT) and Oral Discourse Completion Test (ODCT), were homogenized in terms of their L2 pragmatic proficiency. Subsequently, they were randomly assigned to the control and scaffolding groups. Both groups received metapragmatic instruction on requests and apologies; however, the scaffolding group engaged in collaborative problem-solving tasks during which they needed to read the situations with pragmatically problematic items and jointly work out their appropriate alternatives to them. The results of pretest-posttest-delayed posttest comparison revealed the outperformance of the scaffolding group compared with the control group in both measures of comprehension and production of requests and apologies. The pragmatic gains were also found to be maintained over a period of a month. The findings have implications in language teaching and pedagogy and suggest that pragmatic knowledge is likely to emerge from assisted performance.

India is a diverse country with diverse languages in different regions. People from different regions have different mother tongues. However, for education, English is a language that is preferred over others mainly to ensure that students do not face any problem in their professional life. Although for primary education, local languages are still preferred, however; in higher education, English has become the most important learning language (Mohanty, 2017). The recent trends in the increase of English medium schools in India show the fact that parents of the country are giving increasing importance on making their children get well skilled in English to get better jobs in future. English medium schools have not only built-in urban areas, in recent years, these schools are also being built in rural areas as well.

Bible translations, numbering many thousands at any given time, are evidently different from one another and thus cannot all, or even most, accurately reflect its very text.
Yet are there words or phrases that are undeniably and consistently misrepresenting the text on each and every occasion?
There certainly are, and one of those is 'kingdom of the heavens', which gets mistranslated as "kingdom of heaven" while the word 'heavens' itself (when the word kingdom is not around) gets translated just as 'heavens', plural - and strikingly, that happens almost always only in the English translations

______________________
+++Version Management+++

Includes Discussion content (61 pages) - see https://www.academia.edu/57161277/Publication_List_and_Discussion_Content_access

Richard Wright's The Color Curtain: A Report on the Bandung Conference has long been a fundamental book in Bandung historiography. As a crucial companion volume to The Color Curtain, Roberts and Foulcher's Indonesian Notebook: A Sourcebook on Richard Wright and The Bandung Conference showcases the previously unknown side of Wright's Bandung narrative, as told from the perspectives of the vibrant group of Indonesian intellectuals and writers who hosted him in Indonesia in 1955. Showcasing Wright’s previously unknown interactions with Indonesian modernists and his previously unknown lecturing activities in Indonesia, this book has major implications for any reading of postcolonial history and culture after the Asian-African Conference of 1955.

Among many teachers, students, and users, there exist two fundamentally confused issues that are as follows:
1. What is the standard version of English? and
2. How do I determine whether a language item is standard (correct)?
The instant article answers those two questions.

The standard version of English is its “koiné language” version that includes all versions that are:
1. naturally intelligible; and
2. acceptable under “simultaneously existing” or “current” descriptive or prescriptive grammars.

The procedure to determine the correctness of a language item is a two-step process, as follows:
1. First, we must determine whether it is correct under either DG or PG and, in doing so, the DG overrides. Where the item passes this test, we move on to the next step.
2. In case of a situation in which a specific context is given, we have to see whether it suits in the given context. On the other hand, if no context is given, we must evaluate whether it is suitable in any imaginable context.

In both the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle countries, books which provide examples of letters written in English and guidelines for writing these letters are available for students, business people, and any others who have an interest or need for writing such letters. These model letters are not only for business correspondence, but also cover different topics such as invitations, sympathy, and congratulations to friends. One common model is the letter of complaint, for business settings, between individuals, and in particular the Letter to the Editor. Letters to Editors are one of the richest natural data sources for the speech act of Complaint, and we examine these models for their discourse structure, the types of semantic formulas used, and reference choices for the complainant, the object of complaint, the parties affected by the object of complaint, and the party responsible for the object of complaint. We then compare these models to actual letters to editors in English language newspapers published in Pakistan and Nepal. We find that the actual letters match the models quite closely, and conclude that such resources should play a larger part in the investigation of language usage in world Englishes studies.

В текста са изследвани фразеологичните калки, заети в български от английски, като е обърнато особено внимание на неологизмите. Представени са отделни пътища за навлизането на чуждите изрази, очертана е ролята на популярната литература, киното, онлайн медиите и рекламата. Ключови думи: фразеологични калки, английско влияние, неологизми. Огромното влияние, което американският английски оказва върху българския език през последните десетилетия, кара авторките на академичната Лексикология да говорят за ситуация на неконтактен билингвизъм (БЛФ / BLPH 2013). Още в началото на ХХI в. Д. Кристал обявява английския за глобален език, тъй като с него си служи една четвърт от населението на Земята или 1,5 милиарда души (Crystal 2003: 6). "Неологичният взрив" 45-навлизането на нови думи в областта на икономиката, политическия живот, технологиите, развлекателната индустрия, спорта, медицината и много други сфери-се съпътства от калкиране на фразеологични съчетания (БЛФ / BLPH 2013: 245). Все по-често езиковедите се замислят върху необходимостта от разширяване на термина англицизъм. Днес той обхваща по-широк кръг явления и включва елементи от равнища над лексикалното, а именно от областта на фразеологията и синтаксиса, заемат се семантични, прагматични, стилистични и културни характеристики (Pulcini et al. 2012: 5). В този текст се спирам върху 55 фраземи и изказвам хипотезата, че са навлезли в българския език под английско влияние. Отделям особено внимание на неологизмите. Целта на изложението е да се проследят етапите, през които в езика се установяват калкираните изрази. Спирам се на тяхното първоначално значение, както и на пътищата за утвърждаването им в българския. Поради малкия обем на изследването няма да бъде прокарвано разграничение между фрази, заети от британския и от американския английски, въпреки че въз основа на приведените данни ясно личи по-големият брой на американизмите. Тъй като анализът е насочен към произхода на изразите, възприемам широк подход при дефинирането на фраземите като "конвенционални словосъчетания, които не са свободни" (Тодорова / Todorova 2015: 71). В съвременното езикознание все по-често изследователите говорят за континуум от единици, в единия край на който се разполагат идиомите (като непрозрачни, фиксирани фрази), а в другия-свободните словосъчетания (Granger, Paquot 2008: 28). Обръща се внимание на факта, че фиксираните изрази не са еднородно цяло, те предполагат комплекс от характеристики, които си взаимодействат по различен, често несистемен начин (Moon 1998: 6). Тук се придържам към дефиницията на И. Мелчук, възприета и у Тодорова, за фраземата като "израз, чиито означавано и означаващо не могат едновременно да бъдат конструирани нерестриктивно и регулярно" 46 (Тодорова / Todorova 2015: 73). Представените в този текст фрази се отличават с разделна оформеност, възпроизводимост, относителна структурна устойчивост и експресивност.