Energia Solar

O setor de micro e minigeração de energia elétrica encontra-se num estágio inicial de desenvolvimento no Brasil que pode ser considerado aquém de suas potencialidades em contraste com os recursos energéticos renováveis do país, passados três anos do estabelecimento dos primeiros incentivos de órgãos públicos e privados e da promulgação de regulações específicas voltadas para o setor, indicando uma possível conjuntura atual insuficiente para um crescimento mais consistente e dinâmico. Com tal problemática em vista, a presente dissertação tem como objetivo contribuir no desenvolvimento do setor nacional de micro e minigeração eólica e solar, tecnologias com maior potencial de instalação, apresentando propostas de ações que podem solucionar questões econômicas, técnicas e regulatórias que possivelmente estão dificultando o alcance de um maior equilíbrio de interesses entre os principais agentes envolvidos nesta atividade econômica, ou seja, potenciais usuários, concessionárias de energia, fabricantes e órgãos do governo, aumentando a atratividade e dinamizando os negócios no setor, com benefícios diretamente estendidos ao desenvolvimento do país como um todo. A construção das propostas teve como base o estudo da atual conjuntura e a identificação de possíveis barreiras existentes ao desenvolvimento da micro e minigeração de energia elétrica no Brasil através de análise crítica e mensurável da atual maturidade do setor, isto é, do atual estágio de desenvolvimento e da margem de evolução possível nos aspectos mais relevantes para esta atividade, ou seja, regulações, incentivos, capacidade tecnológica e capacitação profissional. Além disso, observou-se que grande parte dos brasileiros desconhece o tema, porém, depois que cientes do assunto, o percebem como relevante e demonstram disposição significativa para adotar tais sistemas de geração renovável em suas unidades consumidoras. Por fim, avaliou-se que caso ao menos parte das ações descritas nas propostas forem efetivamente implantadas, a perspectiva é que haja uma evolução no ambiente técnico e econômico do setor no país, tornando-o favorável ao desenvolvimento da atividade de micro e minigeração de energia. Espera-se que as propostas apresentadas nesta dissertação possam ser utilizadas como base para trabalhos futuros de instituições governamentais e privadas, fabricantes, centros de pesquisas, universidades e demais interessados no assunto para serem validadas, aperfeiçoadas e detalhadas para um possível estabelecimento no país.  Assim, o trabalho apresenta que se houver desenvolvimento de ambiente favorável, o Brasil desponta como país com alto potencial no mercado de micro e minigeração de energia elétrica e que há possibilidades de ações governamentais e privadas, passíveis de discussões e estudos, para fomentar este ambiente.

ABSTRACT
Renewable energy sources are those that managed properly, can be exploited without limit, that is, the amount available not decreases as exploits. To have a policy of sustainable development is essential for the majority of resources, particularly energy, are the renewable type. The aim of all renewable sources, and photovoltaics is no exception, it is to generate electricity at low costs that allow competing with the production of electrical energy obtained from fossil fuels. Manufacture solar cells with high conversion efficiency is one of the fundamental purposes in order to reduce the price per kWh of electricity. A photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor with two doped layers (p-type and n-type). When light shines on the cell, electrons are released and results in an electric current. Of monocrystalline silicon wafers obtained in the laboratory, higher yielding portion (the core material) 25% to 30% is used in electronics applications and in space applications. The perimeter or kernel environment, which has a performance about 15% - 18%, is used to produce monocrystalline photovoltaic cells.
Keywords: Renewable, Photovoltaic Energy, Cells, Solar.
RESUMEN

El agua y la energía en la Macro Zona Norte y, en particular, en la Región de Antofagasta son el objeto de la investigación que aborda el presente estudio, denominado “Recomendaciones y
líneas de discusión para la promoción y difusión del uso de energías renovables no convencionales y diversificación de la matriz hídrica de la Región de Antofagasta”.
La investigación, en su primera parte, propone una actualización diagnóstica de la línea de base regional de ambos sectores clave, desde donde emerge un claro panorama del estado de agotamiento de las fuentes hídricas convencionales, pese a los esfuerzos robustos del sector privado en la dirección de sustituirlas por fuentes no convencionales derivadas de agua de mar y desalación. En el ámbito energético, la Región describe la extrema carbonización de su actual matriz energética y sus tendencias de más lento desarrollo, a pesar de disponer de abundancia de Fuentes Renovables No Convencionales.
Ambos sectores, con sus tendencias y problemáticas y recomendaciones, son abordados desde el rol del mercado, la arquitectura y el funcionamiento institucional, así como desde la escala nacional a la regional, considerando el papel de las buenas prácticas de Responsabilidad Social desarrolladas
en los sectores de Agua y Energía por parte del sector privado. En particular, se aborda el papel de las capacidades regionales para intervenir en ámbitos críticos del desarrollo regional.
En ambos sectores el estudio describe y analiza la actual institucionalidad, examinando sus avances, déficits y vacíos tanto a escala regional como nacional, con el objetivo de regular, fiscalizar y orientar un desarrollo armónico de ambos sectores respecto de la sociedad, el medio ambiente y el interés estratégico más específico del territorio. Un aspecto original fue describir el papel de las capacidades de los actores regionales, para lo cual se trabajó con un conjunto de percepciones obtenidas en paneles de discusión que incorporaron a actores clave de ambos sectores.
La investigación se desarrolló desde fines del año 2013 y durante el 2014. Su elaboración estuvo a cargo de un equipo académico interdisciplinario asociado a diversos centros de investigación, dirigidos y coordinados por el Instituto de Políticas Públicas de la Universidad Católica del Norte.
La investigación es fruto del apoyo de la Universidad Católica del Norte; en particular, de la Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Desarrollo tecnológico. Su financiamiento corresponde al Fondo de Innovación para la Competitividad Regional (FIC-R), del Gobierno Regional y Consejo Regional de Antofagasta.

The most efficient thin film solar cells are based on Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 (CIGSSe) and CdTe compounds, known as second generation polycrystalline thin films. The challenge of these materials is to reduce the cost per watt of solar energy conversion, but they are actually formed by expensive and/or scanty elements in the earth’s crust such as In, Ga, Te and other that present toxicity issues like Cd. In the last years, new materials with properties of interest for photovoltaic applications and formed by non toxic and relatively abundant elements, have been suggested as alternatives to the main second generation solar cells based on CdTe and CIGSSe. Semiconductor compounds with kesterite structure (Cu2ZnSn(SxSe1−x)4, Cu2ZnSnS4, Cu2ZnSnSe4) and other like In2S3, all of them Cadmium-free have been proposed as new candidates for thin film solar cells. However, reported solar cell efficiencies for these compounds have not yet reached the expected values. In this work, we present a review of the limiting factors for achieving high efficiency in thin film solar cells, related to deposition methods as well as the different mechanisms that limit cell performance. Significant results in the processing of solar cells using some of these compounds and preliminary results of the In2S3 deposition with an overview to its use as buffer layer are presented.

This article shows the technical feasibility, and the payback period of the capital invested to install a Grid-connected Photovoltaic (PV) system on the rooftop of the library of the Technological Federal University of Parana (UTFPR), Curitiba campus. The rooftop has 897 square meters, and the
photovoltaic modules will be used to supply electricity to four consumption scenarios. It is hoped that with the normative resolution 482 of the National Agency of Electric Energy (ANEEL), published in April 2012, the payback period on the initial investment of the PV system is shorter than when there was no such resolution. It is known that, although the resolution represents a breakthrough for inserting the
Grid-connected Photovoltaic power generation, it is still not enough to expand this technology. The high tax of the PV equipment and the absence of incentives for this form of generation still prevent large-scale use. In addition, this article also shows the PV systems installed in Florianópolis (LABSOLAR / UFSC) and Curitiba, such as the Green Office (GO), which is situated at the Technological Federal University of Parana

The concept of Net-Zero Energy in building refers to a building which has an annual balance of energy flow at the utility meter of zero. The concept implies that the building may consume energy from an external provider at times in order to satisfy the building demands, but at other times it must produce enough on-site energy to compensate for this energy. The use of renewable energy technologies is implicit as the source of energy to compensate for any energy used from an external provider. Solar photovoltaic is a proved technology for achieving Net-Zero Energy building but economic factors has limited its broad use. The design stage of a solar photovoltaic project is critical to make a project feasible. In the design stage, the equipment sizing must be optimized in order to reduce the initial capital cost and, therefore, improve the economics of the project. For houses, which it is the focus of this paper, a standalone solar photovoltaic system must supply the house energy demand at all times since it is not connected to the electric grid. As a means to size the system, data of solar energy availability must be used to ensure that the system will provide enough energy to satisfy the energy demand as well as provide energy to charge the batteries that will provide the energy required when the solar energy is not available. In this paper, a methodology to optimize the size of the photovoltaic array and the battery bank is proposed. The methodology accounts for Typical Meteorological Year data (TMY3) to ensure that the system, based on accepted statistical data, will be able to satisfy the energy demand at all times. An example that uses energy demand data obtained from the simulation of a house using the software EnergyGauge is used to illustrate the implementation of the methodology.

A promising approach to reducing the >870,000 deaths/year globally from unsafe water is flow-through solar water pasteurization systems (SWPs). Unfortunately, demonstrated systems have high capital costs, which limits access for the poor. The most expensive component of such systems is the heat exchanger (HX). Thus, this study focuses on cost optimization of HX designs for flow-through SWPs using high-effectiveness polymer microchannel HXs. The theoretical foundation for the cost optimization of a polymer microchannel HX is provided, and outputs are plotted in order to provide guidelines for designers to perform HX optimizations. These plots are used in two case studies: (1) substitution of a coiled copper HX with polymer microchannel HX, and (2) design of a polymer microchannel HX for a 3-D printed collector that can fit in an arbitrary build volume. The results show that substitution of the polymer expanded HX reduced the overall expenditure for the system by a factor 50, which aids in making the system more economical. For the second case study, the results show how future system designers can optimize an HX for an arbitrary SWP geometry. The approach of distributed manufacturing using laser welding appears promising for HX for SWP.