Egypt and Nubia

For thousands of years, people have expressed their cultural and religious ideas in pictorial and written form. The academic field of epigraphy is concerned with the very same legacies, which have been written, painted, engraved or chiseled on various materials. The group of sources studied includes a range of visual and textual media, such as stelae and statues, as well as rock faces and buildings. Although epigraphy was considered an auxiliary science in the past, it has now developed into an independent and important scientific discipline with a wide range of research possibilities.
The contributions brought together in this volume illuminate the geographical area of present-day Egypt and Sudan, while covering a time frame ranging from early rock paintings and monumental pharaonic inscriptions to tombstones from the Islamic period, and modern graffiti in public spaces. Furthermore, they address a broad spectrum of epigraphic topics, theoretical and methodological approaches, and discuss current research questions as well as future perspectives. The anthology thus contributes to a better understanding of epigraphy in Egypt and its neighbouring regions and stimulates further discussions in this field.

It is well known that in Egyptian archaeology, settlements have received comparatively less attention than temples and tombs. This is due to the dominance of the philological fraction within Egyptology mostly interested in carries of texts that can be found in the latter. The prioritization of funerary pharaonic contexts and architecture in historical and archaeological research in Egypt to the detriment of interest in the study of settlements and domestic contexts, prior to the 1960s, led to little care in precise recording of the provenance of finds related to the everyday life. Although this gradually changed to the better, settlements are still not receiving the same attention as other monuments. Notwithstanding this, the current excavations mainly in the settlements of the Egyptian Delta and in some specific sites in Upper Egypt, such as Tell el-Amarna, Dendera, Edfu, Kom Ombo and Elephantine, give priority to the reconstruction of the daily life of its inhabitants in pharaonic periods. Advances in methods of excavation, documentation and study of settlement architecture and small finds allow for novel research questions to be asked. Following on these recent advances, this session aims to address multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinary approaches to the study of domestic contexts and settlements in ancient Egypt, and seeks to describe, complement and create ways of interpreting the activities carried on in such spaces from the study of objects and structures. We welcome papers from various contexts and from all periods of ancient Egyptian history and surrounding areas (e.g., Levant and Nubia) that contribute to a greater understanding of the urban areas and domestic spaces.

This paper reconsiders three royal inscriptions of King Merenra (Sixth Dynasty) in the region of the First Nile Cataract. They have long been known to scholars but have not received extensive treatment beyond translations. The inscriptions appear to be among the first explicit royal statements addressing the limits of Egyptian territory and the beginnings of foreign lands. The paper situates the inscriptions within more comprehensive scholarship related to border studies, the geographic setting of the First Cataract region, and the historical context of the late Old Kingdom. We argue these inscriptions provide key information about political border-making during this period. Full-text PDF available here: http://etudesettravaux.iksiopan.pl/images/etudtrav/EtudTrav_otwarte/Etud_Trav_37/EtudTrav_37_04_Siegel_Hainline_Nicolini_Gatto__compressed.pdf

In 2003 the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization adopted a Convention for Safeguarding Intangible Heritage. Since that date all the countries all over the world started to develop the strategies to document, Keep, and market their Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) elements. The Nubian community in Egypt has rich and unique ICH which is still being transmitted from generation to generation. But such kind of cultural heritage face number of challenges which negatively affected it and may cause its extinction in the future these challenges include globalization, modernization, and changes in life styles. this can explain why the documentation of Nubian ICH become urgently needed. This study aims at identification and documentation of the key authentic Nubian ICH elements of the local community who live in Bigeh Island in Aswan, Egypt. Three focus group discussions were conducted with a number of the Nubians who live in Bigeh Island to identify the ICH of the local community. Also comprehensive reading of many published references and other reliable internet sources to get more information about these elements

This case study explores the physical and cultural connections between the Hebrews and African populations in ancient Egypt, focusing particularly on the Hebrews' ability to blend into Egyptian society during their time in Egypt. By examining genetic studies, archaeological evidence, historical accounts, and biblical texts, the study argues that the Hebrews, including Moses, likely shared physical traits with the indigenous African populations of Egypt and Nubia, which allowed them to integrate into Egyptian society seamlessly. The study highlights the presence of black African populations in the Nile Valley and their genetic continuity over time, offering evidence that the Hebrews' physical appearance was not drastically different from that of the Egyptians and Nubians. The case study also explores the role of Moses within the Egyptian royal court, his marriage to a Cushite woman, and the broader cultural interactions between the Hebrews and African peoples. Ultimately, the study emphasizes the importance of understanding the Hebrews as part of the broader African context, with deep physical, cultural, and historical connections to Egypt and Nubia.

This paper reconsiders three royal inscriptions of King Merenra (Sixth Dynasty) in the region of the First Nile Cataract. They have long been known to scholars but have not received extensive treatment beyond translations. The inscriptions appear to be among the first explicit royal statements addressing the limits of Egyptian territory and the begin- nings of foreign lands. The paper situates the inscriptions within more comprehensive scholarship related to border studies, the geographic setting of the First Cataract region, and the historical context of the late Old Kingdom. We argue these inscriptions provide key information about political border-making during this period.

The kingdom of Kerma has traditionally been viewed as a political, militaristic, and cultural antagonist to the polities of Egypt during the later Middle Bronze (2000-1550 BC). However, little consideration has been made on how royal courts across Nile Valley cultures interacted with one another through cooperative processes. This paper provides new perspectives on how the Kerma royal court engaged with Egyptian elite groups through the establishment of diplomatic relations. Material evidence of cross-cultural interaction in the forms, decoration, and functions of Kerma funerary beds across different Kerma sites are argued to document adoption and adaption of select forms of Egyptian court habitus, subsequently modified to suit Kerman material and social preferences. These cultural transmissions were facilitated by travelling diplomats and embassies, who formed social relationships with their hosts through court receptions and gift exchange. This process allowed Kerman and Egyptian courtiers to establish shared forms of material culture, practice, and identity that transcended cultural differences and encouraged cooperative, friendly relationships between different courts throughout the Nile Valley.

This paper investigates different body techniques for carrying heavy loads by individuals buried at Abu Fatima, a Nubian Bronze Age cemetery in Sudan. Drawing on iconographic evidence from ancient Egypt and Nubia, as well as African and other ethnographic records, the paper aims to understand gendered patterns behind load-carrying practices and their traces on skeletal remains. A multi-proxy approach was employed, using various skeletal modifications associated with mechanical loading. Examination of entheseal changes, osteoarthritis-related alterations, and degenerative vertebral changes was conducted to investigate the impacts of muscle loading, joint stress, and spinal adaptations. Additionally, unintentional cranial modifications, specifically changes caused by tumpline use, were also considered. The results indicate gender-specific load-carrying techniques among the individuals buried at Abu Fatima. Men displayed evidence of unilateral entheseal changes and humeroscapular osteoarthritis, indicating involvement in activities that necessitated bearing load on one shoulder. Women displayed distinct degenerative changes to the cervical vertebrae indicating frequent musculoskeletal use of the upper neck.

After 25 years of research on the “casing stone story,” I’ve made new discoveries that challenge the current story. Evidence comparing the three pyramids on the Giza Plateau shows the differences in construction. The Khufu Images further challenge the story as we know it because they would not be visible if casing stones were ever present.

While there is a considerable body of data regarding the sources of minerals employed in Bronze Age Egypt, the supply chains to Sudanese Lower Nubia are virtually unknown. This paper presents results of lead isotope analysis of 11 samples of kohl from C-group, Pan-grave and New Kingdom funerary contexts across the Debeira and Ashkeit areas in Sudanese Lower Nubia during the Bronze Age. The samples could be divided in two groups based on their lead isotope ratios. A comparison between the kohl samples from Sudanese Lower Nubia and galena ores from various mining sites on the Red Sea coast of Egypt indicated that some of the galena used in kohl mixtures in Sudanese Lower Nubia came from the Pharaonic mining site of Gebel el-Zeit. The second group of Nubian samples seems to have originated from an alternative galena source yet to be determined. This is the first time that kohl samples from Sudanese Lower Nubia are integrated into known northeast African networks of supply by using Lead isotope analysis.

The term supratrochlear aperture (STA) refers to a perforation of the bony septum between the coronoid and olecranon fossae of the
distal humerus. Although extensively reported and discussed in the literature, there is no consensus about its origin or etiology.
Previous studies have shown that the presence of a STA is related to bone size, i.e., smaller bones are more prone to exhibit this trait.
Our study reports on the prevalence of the STA in selected populations of the ancient Nile Valley based on photographic and
radiographic records and further explores the relationship between the presence of a STA and the size of the epicondylar breadth of
the distal humerus.
Keywords: supratrochlear aperture (STA), distal humerus, Nile Valley, ancient Egypt

Following its participation in the UNESCO International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Lower Nubia, the Czechoslovak Institute of Egyptology received a donation of a share of finds acquired during its course by the Egyptian government. These objects are presently kept as a part of the collections of the Náprstek Museum of Asian, African and American Cultures. Most of the finds from the UNESCO campaign have already been thoroughly examined and published. A set of several rock inscriptions removed from the area of Naga el-Girgawi, located a few kilometres downstream from Korosko, was published by Zbyněk Žába in his publication titled The Rock Inscriptions of Lower Nubia. (Czechoslovak Concession) in 1974. However, this publication is lacking, due to objective reasons, a proper correlation with the Náprstek Museum's inventory. The aim of this paper is to supplement the original publication in this regard as well as provide further documentation of the pieces.

Monumental rock-cut tombs decorated with wall paintings or reliefs were rare in New Kingdom colonial Nubia. Exceptions include the 18th Dynasty tombs of Djehutyhotep (Debeira) and Hekanefer (Miam), and the 20th Dynasty tomb of Pennut (Aniba). The three tombs present typical Egyptian artistic representations and inscriptions, which include tomb owners and their families, but also those living under their direct control. This paper compares the artistic and architectural features of these decorated, monumental rock-cut tombs in light of the archaeological record of the regions in which they were located in order to contextualize art within its social setting in colonized Nubia. More than expressing cultural and religious affiliations in the colony, art seems to have been essentially used as a tool to enforce hierarchization and power, and to define the borders of the uppermost elite social spaces in New Kingdom colonial Nubia.

As we all know African continent has been through a lot overtime and space as the world evolved , she has witness all sort of influence  since the coming of the Europeans in the continent . From the advent of the transatlantic slave trade ,its abolition, the introduction of western civilization (Christianity) and the Machiavelli introduction of their administrative values through what is known in history as colonialism, imperialism and to cut it all annexation through the balkanization of former rich empires , kingdom and thus the destruction of  the continent from this great empires to petit states.  note should however be taken that, Africa as any other continent of the world has its own culture, religion and finally traditional way of life on the socio-political and economic strength. The continent was independent and not depending on any other continent or country for economic or cultural assistance to settle its disputes or crisis. This was however seen from the establishment or the presence of great kingdoms and empire that were rich in all aspects of life. Thus these kingdoms were occupied by great men who wanted just the best for their subjects and this therefore let to great civilizations which gave an additional momentum to this empires in Africa. Great empires existed such as the kanem Bornu empire, the Songhai empire and the Ghana empire just to name a few of them, with this then the continent was deemed to be so prosperous in all walks of life. Before the coming of the western civilization (Christianity) some of the rich civilizations which have taken the continent to the lamplight of global events  such as the Egyptian civilization, the Kush civilization, Axum and the mwenemotopia civilization, which were all rich in diversity.
  Therefore the research methodology use here was the analytical approach with evidence obtained from diverse sources that enabled us to succeed in the processed of academic or scientific investigation, so as events unfold we shall bring out certain scientific realities behind African civilisations and the influence  or impact Christianity had over this civilization

 
Keywords: Civilisation, Christianity, Continent, Empire, kingdom, Europeans.

Raman spectroscopy and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry were used to characterize the chemical composition of 34 red garnet beads from Lower Nubian sites, dated between about 3200 BCE and 600 CE. All beads from the A-Group to the Meroitic period feature a similar calcium-poor almandine composition (69%-78% almandine, 15%-22% pyrope, 2%-6% grossular, 3%-9% spessartine), which differs from other calcium-poor almandine garnet types, sourced mostly from Indian deposits in Antiquity. The Nubian beads constitute a new garnet type, named "cluster I", featuring high yttrium (180 to 1205 ppm), moderately low chromium (13-70 ppm), and high scandium (119-213 ppm) concentrations. Their compositions match with previous and two new analyses from two alluvial garnet deposits, Wadi El-Haraz and Wadi Abu Dom, near the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Upper Nubia, about 670 km as the crow flies from the Lower Nubian graves. Garnet trade between the Bayuda desert and Lower Nubia sites, and possibly even Egypt, flourished for almost four millennia. Northeastern Africa is the cradle for the oldest use of a gemstone that is harder than quartz-the red almandine garnet. A Post-Meroitic bead, the youngest in the assembly, displays an unusual faceting, a diamond tipped drill hole, excellent polish, distinct short-and long-prismatic colorless mineral inclusions, and a calcium-and manganese-poor pyrope composition. This suggests that it was not of a local, Nubian, production, but imported, most probably from a South Asian site.

In 2013, the hand-written diary of Max Weidenbach was found in the South Australian Museum in Adelaide. At 19 years of age, Max was the youngest member, a draughtsman, with the famous Prussian expedition to Egypt under Richard Lepsius (1842-1845).

From the publisher's website (Kadmos / Berlin):
Erstmals wird hier das »Tagebuch während der Reise« von Max Weidenbach ungekürzt und kommentiert einer Leserschaft vorgestellt. Jene Reise führte von Alexandrien nach Khartum und in den Sinai mit dem Ziel, die Monumente des pharaonischen Ägypten zeichnerisch zu dokumentieren. Max Weidenbach war mit 19 Jahren der jüngste Teilnehmer dieser bedeutenden wissenschaftlichen Expedition unter Leitung von Richard Lepsius, die Preußens König Friedrich Wilhelm IV. finanzierte. Sein Tagebuch wurde 2013 ganz unerwartet im South Australian Museum in Adelaide (wieder-)gefunden. Es ist eine neue und sehr ergiebige Quelle für die Geschichte der Expedition, aber auch für das Ägypten Mohamed Alis.

This research focuses on the performance and enactment of the royal funeral in antiquity, which is studied through the lens of New Kingdom royal burials in the Valley of the Kings (ca. 1550- 1070BC). This allows for a redefinition of how we think about ancient Egyptian royal burials from the perspective of human action, by closely examining what objects were used to create a divine space, how they functioned within the final ceremonies to transfigure a deceased king into a god, and to understand better the transition of power between one ruler and the next. The research is approached holistically, engaging with archaeological, art historical, and textual evidence.

Art and its impact on contemporary environment has attracted the attention of several mural artist and academics. The charming area of Nubia with its strategic location on the banks of the river Nile emerged as the source of inspiration of several artists. Nubian art is characterized by special features based on the beliefs and traditions of successive civilizations beginning from the Stone Age. Art has also left his impact on Nubian region giving it a distinctive character.

In 2003 the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization adopted a Convention for Safeguarding Intangible Heritage. Since that date all the countries all over the world started to develop the strategies to document, Keep, and market their Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) elements. The Nubian community in Egypt has rich and unique ICH which is still being transmitted from generation to generation. But such kind of cultural heritage face number of challenges which negatively affected it and may cause its extinction in the future these challenges include globalization, modernization, and changes in life styles. this can explain why the documentation of Nubian ICH become urgently needed. This study aims at identification and documentation of the key authentic Nubian ICH elements of the local community who live in Bigeh Island in Aswan, Egypt. Three focus group discussions were conducted with a number of the Nubians who live in Bigeh Island to identify the ICH of the local community. Also comprehensive reading of many published references and other reliable internet sources to get more information about these elements

In 2003 the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization adopted a Convention for Safeguarding Intangible Heritage. Since that date all the countries all over the world started to develop the strategies to document, Keep, and market their Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) elements. The Nubian community in Egypt has rich and unique ICH which is still being transmitted from generation to generation. But such kind of cultural heritage face number of challenges which negatively affected it and may cause its extinction in the future these challenges include globalization, modernization, and changes in life styles. this can explain why the documentation of Nubian ICH become urgently needed. This study aims at identification and documentation of the key authentic Nubian ICH elements of the local community who live in Bigeh Island in Aswan, Egypt. Three focus group discussions were conducted with a number of the Nubians who live in Bigeh Island to identify the ICH of the local community. Also comprehensive reading of many published references and other reliable internet sources to get more information about these elements

Alternative Giza researchers are usually aware of at least one of the ways in which the Great Pyramid references the speed of light. Khafre's pyramid also provides the speed of light very elegantly, with a simple exponential formula of base and height.

This fifth chapter of the book Early Christianity in Contexts commences with a brief survey of the history and culture of various ancient kingdoms along the river Nile, including the Hellenistic and Roman periods (William Tabbernee). This is followed by detailed presentations of the introduction and spread of Christianity in Egypt (Malcolm Choat), especially in Alexandria (Christopher Haas); Axum (William Tabbernee); and Nubia (Jitse Dijkstra). Material evidence such as papyri and inscriptions are discussed where available and relevant.

The Samaritans manuscripts are written in Arabic script with vocalized letters. However, the scribe errs in the vocalization more often than not. The Arabic expression is characterized with a good deal of sophistication, though it is occasionally marked with dialectical features, following the style of most of the texts written in the so-called Middle Arabic.

Particularly rich areas for rock art in the Nubian Nile Valley are the cataract zones, where rock outcrops are abundant. Travel by boat is more difficult at the cataracts, perhaps providing travelers with more time to create drawings. This chapter provides a look at concentrations of rock drawings in the 4th–5th Cataract region near the heartland of ancient Napata (figs. 7.1–2). I documented the rock drawings in 2004–2008, particularly in areas known as the Khor Daghfali, Boni Island, and the site of Sihan on Mograt Island near Abu Hamed. The goal of the project was to record important rock art sites. Since completion of the Merowe Dam in 2009, it has become clear that rock engravings in Sudan are in danger due to the numerous dam and highway construction projects.

In 2003 the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization adopted a Convention for Safeguarding Intangible Heritage. Since that date all the countries all over the world started to develop the strategies to document, Keep, and market their Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) elements. The Nubian community in Egypt has rich and unique ICH which is still being transmitted from generation to generation. But such kind of cultural heritage face number of challenges which negatively affected it and may cause its extinction in the future these challenges include globalization, modernization, and changes in life styles. this can explain why the documentation of Nubian ICH become urgently needed. This study aims at identification and documentation of the key authentic Nubian ICH elements of the local community who live in Bigeh Island in Aswan, Egypt. Three focus group discussions were conducted with a number of the Nubians who live in Bigeh Island to identify the ICH of the local community. Also comprehensive reading of many published references and other reliable internet sources to get more information about these elements

On criticism, misrepresentation, and logical fallacy in Egyptology: A response to Aaron de Souza's review of Ethnic Identities in the Land of the Pharaohs. Past and Present Approaches in Egyptology Reading the books Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact by Ludwik Fleck (1981 [1935]) and Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts by Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar (1986) was in many ways an eye-opening experience. These authors argue that:-Research is a social process and is therefore not an entirely objective and value-free enterprise.-Knowledge is constructed within social contexts and through the actions of researchers. Certain ideas are black-boxed, meaning that they are taken for granted and unquestioned.-Researchers form communities which can be called thought-collectives and they share thought-styles. What they do is often the result of various social influences, including funding, politics, and personal interests. I utilized these ideas in my analysis of scientific racism in Egyptology and archaeology of Sudan (Matić 2018a) as well as in my tackling of the legacy of culture-historical archaeology in the archaeology of Egypt (Matić 2018b). These papers prompted the editors of the new Elements series of Cambridge University Press titled "Ancient Egypt in Context" to invite me to write a short review on the approaches to ethnic identities in Egyptology (Matić 2020). After both editorial and external peerreview, the book was published and has since then mostly received a positive reception, as indicated by, among other things, its quotation rate on Google Scholar (28 times since 2020). However, the book also received other responses, such as negative criticism by Aaron de Souza (2021), parts of which I would like to address here. de Souza starts his criticism gradually and builds up his arguments toward the total dismissal of my work in his conclusion. Firstly, in summarizing the introductory chapter, he claims: "Apart from the research questions themselves, the introductory section is otherwise dominated by the chronological overview, despite Matić's claim that 'chronological boundaries will not play a significant role' for the volume." (de Souza 2021, 347) This is, however, unfair and untrue for two reasons. The first is that the introduction of the book counts 15 pages and is divided into three sections. The dominating chronological overview de Souza refers to is less than two pages long (Matić 2020, 1-2). The second reason is that this is a logical fallacy, specifically a straw man argument. De Souza attacks a different subject than the topic he discusses and gives an entirely wrong and unjustified

This paper deals with the funerary architecture of the royal necropolises of the Napata Kingdom where an evident influence comes from the Theban elitist models of the Asasif. These decorative loans were randomly chosen and in use in Nubia following a specific local taste in relation to the layout of the tombs, their figurative and epigraphical decorations. They show an independent, adaptive and selective emulation, as well as a personal mingling of Egyptian models, sometimes reinterpreting them, shaping new patterns in visual art and creating an indigenous textual program within the burial chambers. Egyptian religion had a key role in the provision of textual corpuses even in periods of conflict, when a continuous trade of religious equipment and scriptural material were brought to Napata through an international market system managed by religious institutions.

The article publishes and analyzes six pottery vessels found by the Nubian Expedition of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1962 at the site of Khor Daoud (Southern Egypt) and subsequently transferred under the agreement with the Egyptian government to the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. Four jars are Egyptian in shape and are
typical for the Naqada culture; the other two can be characterized as Nubian; the dating of this group of pottery fits into the interval of Naqada IIB–IIIA (3600–3200 BC). Taking into account the nature of finds in Khor Daoud, which is located within the area of the Nubian A-Groups Culture, the site should be interpreted as a trading post where goods from Egypt, the region of the middle reaches of the Nile and the Nubian Desert were exchanged

The contribution deals with some imaginary creatures occurring in the
Kerma art. Indeed, mythical animals like criosphinx, winged giraffe and hippo with anthropomorphic body and others were represented in the capital city of the kingdom of Kush in Kerma Classique times (ca. 1750-1550 BC). The features of these mythical animals will be described, and their occurrence will be outlined, with specific focus on the contexts where they were represented. Some hypotheses on their meaning and on their relevance in the Kerma ideology and religion will be proposed.

Over a century, the center of the earlier phase of the Kushite state (Napata) was a matter of dispute among the scholars concerned. The sites recovered by the Boston – Harvard Expedition (1916-1919) at J. Barkal, Kurru, Nuri, and Sanam were either burial grounds or temples of the royal Kushite family, widely known as the 25th dynasty of Egypt. No settlement equivalent to the glamour of this state or parallel to its activities was recovered. Suggestions and hypotheses by authorities in area of Jebel Barkal indicate the field (Reisner, 1917, Dunham, 1950, Kendall, 1990 and Hakem, 1975 alternate from Barkal to Kurru to Sanam to Meroe .
Recent investigations by the Department of Archaeology of the University of  Dongola revealed remains of a settlement east of  J. Barkal with more than one stratigraphic architectural levels and a variety of artifacts and eco-factual remains.
In the light of these discoveries and other observations, this paper aims to discuss these hypotheses and cast a light on the role of the Napatan settlement at Jebel Barkal.

Art and its impact on contemporary environment has attracted the attention of several mural artist and academics. The charming area of Nubia with its strategic location on the banks of the river Nile emerged as the source of inspiration of several artists. Nubian art is characterized by special features based on the beliefs and traditions of successive civilizations beginning from the Stone Age. Art has also left his impact on Nubian region giving it a distinctive character.

Uno de los grandes vacíos en el conocimiento de los artefactos de la vida cotidiana del antiguo Egipto lo constituyen las figurillas producidas en barro o arcilla a lo largo del segundo milenio a.n.e. Recientemente, innovadores proyectos e investigadores han comenzado a estudiar diferentes conjuntos de piezas de estas características a lo largo del valle del Nilo.

En el marco de estas investigaciones, la ponencia tiene por objeto presentar un caso de estudio paradigmático para el análisis tipológico-funcional de estos artefactos: el conjunto de figurillas zoomorfas y antropomorfas en barro y arcilla halladas en la red de fortificaciones de Batn el-Hagar (emplazada en el actual Sudán y, otrora, en el extremo meridional de Egipto en tiempos del Reino Medio).

El autor de este trabajo ha compilado un primer catálogo integral del conjunto de figurillas halladas en las fortificaciones de la región. Basándose en este estudio, se destacarán dos variables fundamentales para comprender el posible papel y uso de estos artefactos: su tipología y su distribución espacial. De este modo, estableciendo conexiones entre la caracterización morfológica de las piezas y su particular contexto arqueológico, exhibidas por medio del empleo de mapas digitales de distribución, se formularán una serie de hipótesis centradas en identificar la(s) posible(s) funcionalidad(es) de las piezas en el marco de estas fortificaciones de frontera.

Asimismo, el estudio aportará nuevos datos a la hora de estudiar, desde una perspectiva crítica, la tradicional interpretación de los espacios dentro de los fuertes y la articulación de la vida diaria llevada a cabo por sus pobladores.

2020 the construction of a storeroom began. The building was to be located next to a police station at the site, so archaeological excavations had to be conducted there before construction started (Trench 1/SH). Simultaneously, an initial ethnological study was undertaken in al-Gen'ab and Marabiya al-Sherif to understand the attitudes that the inhabitants of modern Soba have to the archaeological remains. Aerial photography Before geophysical prospection and excavation, systematic documentation by means of aerial photography was undertaken. Vertical and oblique photos as well as video captures were made using a camera suspended under an unmanned aerial vehicle (DJI Mavic Air 2 with Hasselblad camera). Oblique photos recorded the changing landscape of Soba. Vertical photos with ground control points measured by means of a GPS RTK (Topcon Hiper SR) were processed to create 3D-models of the surface of the site (Agisoft Metashape software). Subsequently, digital elevation models (DEMs) and orthomosaics were made, and used throughout the research. All topographical measurements were made using the WGS84 / UTM zone36N coordinate system (EPSG: 32636). The same documentation technique was applied during excavations. Each explored layer in every trench was documented with vertical, oblique and 3D-model aerial photographs. The aerial video captures of the fieldwork and the landscape were integrated to create movie clips promoting Sudan's heritage and our research. The films, as well as selected aerial photos from the fieldwork, can be found on the project website (www.soba.uw.edu.pl).

Art and its impact on contemporary environment has attracted the attention of several mural artist and academics. The charming area of Nubia with its strategic location on the banks of the river Nile emerged as the source of inspiration of several artists. Nubian art is characterized by special features based on the beliefs and traditions of successive civilizations beginning from the Stone Age. Art has also left his impact on Nubian region giving it a distinctive character.

The paper presents the new archaeological project established by Sapienza University of Rome in Sudan at the site of Hujair Gubli, setting it against the recent research defined and carried out in the past years (2019-2021). The general idea and the historical background underpinning such a programme will be reviewed, together with some of the results (both tangible and intangible) that have been produced. Finally, the main tracks of future agenda will be prospectively outlined.

Art and its impact on contemporary environment has attracted the attention of several mural artist and academics. The charming area of Nubia with its strategic location on the banks of the river Nile emerged as the source of inspiration of several artists. Nubian art is characterized by special features based on the beliefs and traditions of successive civilizations beginning from the Stone Age. Art has also left his impact on Nubian region giving it a distinctive character.

People in the Nile Valley lived in the constant fear of monsters, demons and other misfortunes threatening them. Therefore, they had to turn to God for protection. God however was far in the Heavens, while his angelic messengers were closer, moving between celestial and earthly spaces. To ensure their protection, their images and names were placed wherever the exposure to the evil forces was the greatest. An attribution of these protective functions is not always clear from the way the archangels were depicted in art. The figures are shown frontally, frequently freestanding. For the most part, it is the context or accompanying inscriptions that allow an image to be identified as an archangel in its apotropaic function. Therefore, for this chapter, three groups have been chosen connected with the protection of buildings and their interiors; protection of the bodies of living Nubians and finally with deceased. Writing this paper, the author was aware that the subject is so rich that the presented material and its interpretations are only an introduction to further research, which will be gradually undertaken.

The term *Wadū appears in various Nubian dialects. The term is usually associated with Arabic. However, The Nuër people of Sudan utilize the term in their language of Thok Naath. As-Suyuti was clear about various words in Arabic that came from other languages. Arthur Jeffery catalogued many words that appear in Arabic that originated from other languages. The book Foreign words in the Qur’ān, by Arthur Jeffery, is still studied by Arabic linguists today. Language speakers borrow words from other languages often. English borrows from Greek and Latin regularly for its medical and law terminologies. Similarly, Arabic borrowed from Coptic and Old Arabian Sabaic. This article is a mere extract from a larger manuscript entitled Nabataeans: People of Botany & Astronomy.

Archaeology lends a critical perspective to research on social inequality due to the eld's unique access to deep history, emphasis on materiality, and explicit incorporation of multiple lines of evidence. This paper o ers a concise overview of archaeological approaches aimed at students and scholars in other elds. We develop a categorization of disciplinary strategies, arguing that archaeologists address institutionalized inequality through examining inequalities in the accumulation of goods or resources (economic di erentiation); access to resources or knowledge (social di erentiation), and inequalities in action, the ability to make decisions for oneself or others (political di erentiation). We illustrate these categories with reference to the distinctions between material, relational, and embodied wealth. We draw upon a broad range of geographic, chronological, and cultural case studies to illustrate the exibility and utility of archaeological methods for answering questions about inequality in human societies.