Curriculum-based Measurement

In this article, the authors describe the use of curriculumbased measurement as a research-validated practice for monitoring student academic achievement and ultimately for improving students' educational outcomes. The authors describe oral-reading fluency and maze fluency as assessment tools for monitoring student progress, evaluating instructional effectiveness, and aiding teachers with instructional planning. They provide a brief hypothetical case study of 1 elementary-aged student with a learning disability in reading to illustrate the use of progress-monitoring practices for enhancing instructional decision making and promoting academic achievement.

a b s t r a c t Sex differences have been previously found in cognitive and affective predictors of math achievement, including spatial skills and math attitudes. It is important to determine whether there are sex differences not only in the predictors themselves, but also in the nature of their relation to math achievement. The present paper examined spatial skills and math attitudes as predictors of curriculum-based measures of math performance in middle-school students, specifically comparing the patterns of these predictive relations for boys and girls. The results of the current study showed that, despite similar levels of math performance for boys and girls, the significance of particular predictors varied as a function of sex. Specifically, spatial skills predicted math performance in boys, but not in girls. We suggest that sex differences in spatial reasoning in conjunction with the differential involvement of spatial reasoning in math problem solving may lead to later sex differences in math outcomes.

Lernfortschritte systematisch zu erfassen ist eine zentrale Voraussetzung für einen am individuellen Förderbedarf orientierten Unterricht. Die bisher überwiegenden Formen der Lernfortschrittsdiagnostik mit Hilfe informeller Beobachtungen oder formeller statusorientierter Tests haben beide Vorteile, bringen jedoch auch erhebliche Nachteile mit sich. Mit dem Konzept des curriculumbasierten Messens wird versucht, die Stärken beider Herangehensweisen zu verbinden: Über einen längeren Zeitraum werden standardisierte aber sehr praktikable Kurztests zum Erfassen unterrichtsnaher Kompetenzen durchgeführt. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen dieses Vorgehens werden diskutiert.

Cohesion in writing is achieved through the use of linguistic devices that tie ideas together across a text, and is an important element in the development of coherent writing. Research shows that interand intra-developmental differences may appear in how children learn to use these devices, but cohesion is commonly overlooked in the evaluation and instruction of writing. In this study, we developed a checklist to assess cohesion in the writing of children in Grades 4-7, with the purpose of informing instructional practices. Following the procedure outlined by Crocker and Algina (1986), we developed and evaluated a checklist designed to assess the types of cohesive devices present in the writing of children. The checklist items showed fair to good discrimination between high and low scoring writers as demonstrated by a classical item analysis. We also found good interrater reliability, and evidence for discriminative validity. As internal consistency was weak, however, further research is needed to refine the instrument. Implications for the assessment of cohesion and future research are discussed.

This article presents initial findings from a study examining First Sound Fluency (FSF), which is a brief measure of early phonemic awareness (PA) skills. Students in prekindergarten and kindergarten (preK and K) were assessed three times (fall, winter, and spring) over one school year, which resulted in multiple reliability and validity coefficients. In addition, a subset of students in both preK and K was assessed monthly between benchmark periods using alternate forms of the FSF measure to estimate delayed alternate-form reliability. The FSF measure displayed adequate reliability and validity for decision making in early literacy for students in both grades. Implications of these findings are discussed.

A great deal of research over the past decade has examined the appropriateness of curriculum-based measurement of oral reading (R-CBM) in universal screening. Multiple researchers have meta-analyzed available correlational evidence, yielding support for the interpretation of R-CBM as an indicator of general reading proficiency. In contrast, researchers have yet to synthesize diagnostic accuracy evidence, which pertains to the defensibility of the use of R-CBM for screening purposes. The overall purpose of this research was to therefore conduct the first meta-analysis of R-CBM diagnostic accuracy research. A systematic search of the literature resulted in the identification of 34 studies, including 20 peer-reviewed articles, 7 dissertations, and 7 technical reports. Bivariate hierarchical linear models yielded generalized estimates of diagnostic accuracy statistics, which predominantly exceeded standards for acceptable universal screener performance. For instance, when predicting criterion outcomes within a school year (≤ 9 months), R-CBM sensitivity ranged between .80 and .83 and specificity ranged between .71 and .73. Multiple moderators of R-CBM diagnostic accuracy were identified, including the (a) R-CBM cut score used to define risk, (b) lag in time between R-CBM and criterion test administration, and (c) percentile rank corresponding to the criterion test cut score through which students were identified as either truly at risk or not at risk. Follow-up analyses revealed substantial variability of extracted cut scores within grade and time of year (i.e., fall, winter, and spring). This result called into question the inflexible application of a single cut score across contexts and suggested the potential necessity of local cut scores. Implications for practices, directions for future research, and limitations are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to develop short-duration assessment measures hypothesized to be valid samples of early mathematical behavior. The Early Numeracy Skill Indicators were designed using a curriculum-based assessment approach. Participants included 64 kindergarten children from a school district in the rural Northeast. Design components featured longitudinal correlation analyses conducted over a 26-week period. Decision analyses were completed using receiver operating characteristic techniques. Results indicated that selected Early Numeracy Skill Indicators tasks produced reliable, valid, and diagnostically accurate scores in relation to established criterion measures. Implications focus on the use and development of the measures as a means to prevent failure and enhance mathematics competency. Further, these tools complement the growing availability of early mathematics curriculum-based measures.

Recent research on curriculum-based measurement of oral reading fluency has revealed important issues in current passage development procedures, highlighting how dissimilar passages are problematic for monitoring student progress. The purpose of this paper is to describe statistical equating as an option for achieving equivalent scores across non-parallel reading passages. The psychometric and design properties of words-correct scores are examined, and the requirements of traditional equating methods are discussed. Simulated and empirical words-correct scores are used to demonstrate the steps in the equating process and the situations in which each method is most appropriate.

American Sign Language (ASL) has become the third most widely used language in America preceded only by English and Spanish; however, the methods used to assess ASL performance are problematic, resulting in a system that is administratively complex and fails to support student learning. We are presently creating a languagelearning environment that will fundamentally improve the methods and processes used to assess ASL performance. The environment will be a cost-effective application of pedagogically-and technologically-advanced innovations that together improve instructional quality. Parallel to the creation of the system, we are developing Curriculum Based Measures (CBM) to establish a flexible, fast, valid, and reliable technique for measuring student progress and promoting early detection of learning difficulties. The CBM will be integrated into the four-tier software environment that establishes (a) a platform for students to capture, submit, and archive ASL performances, (b) a setting for instructors to evaluate and report student performance, (c) a portfolio where students can monitor performance, and (d) an administration component to manage and coordinate performance-and evaluation-data. In this paper, we outline the existing development and significance of the environment and identify our initial research exploring the optimal frame rate and video size for use in performance capture and evaluation.

Fifty-nine first-graders from an ethnically diverse (70% Native American, 18% Hispanic, and 12% European American) rural elementary school participated in this study. First-grade students' growth in oral reading fluency (ORF) was predicted by their kindergarten letter-naming and letter-sound fluency using growth curve analysis. Both skills significantly predicted first-grade reading growth. Hierarchical multiple regression using initial first-grade ORF and kindergarten letter-sound and letter-naming fluency showed that kindergarten letter-naming fluency uniquely contributed to the prediction of first-grade reading growth. On average, students who made limited growth in first-grade ORF produced only eight letter names per minute in kindergarten. In addition, we found that Native American and Hispanic students did not reliably differ in their reading growth from the other students. Discussion highlights the use of letter-naming fluency as an early screen for ethnically diverse students in ORF.

DOI: 10.1177/0741932507309694 2008; 29; 46 Remedial and Special Education Ben Clarke, Scott Baker, Keith Smolkowski and David J. Chard Student Outcomes ... An Analysis of Early Numeracy Curriculum-Based Measurement: Examining the Role of Growth in

This study examined patterns of growth across benchmark assessments for curriculum-based measures (CBM) over 2 academic years, with the twofold purpose of replicating earlier findings of growth patterns on R-CBM and conducting a preliminary investigation of growth patterns on M-CBM and CBM-Maze. The sample included 898 cases from 3rd through 5th grade over 2 academic years from one elementary school in the rural Midwest. All students participated in triannual benchmark assessments in which they were administered R-CBM, CBM-Maze, and M-CBM. Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to examine patterns of growth for all three measures. Students demonstrated greater R-CBM weekly growth during winter-to-spring than fall-to-winter across grade levels. Patterns for CBM-Maze and M-CBM were somewhat inconsistent across school years and grade levels. Results are discussed in terms of contextual

The purpose of this study was to examine the alternate-form reliability, criterion validity, and sensitivity of progress-monitoring measures in reading for secondary-level English Learners (ELs). Twenty-five ELs in an urban high school were administered two types of Curriculum-Based Measures (CBM) once every 3 weeks for 13 weeks. Measures included 2-min timed maze tasks and 1-min timed oral reading tasks drawn

The purpose of the two studies reported in this article was to examine technical features of curriculum-based measures for beginning writers. In Study 1, 50 first graders responded to word copying, sentence copying, and story prompts. In Study 2, 50 additional first graders responded to letter, picture-word, picture-theme, and photo prompts. In both studies, 3-to 5-minute prompts were administered in winter and spring and scored using a variety of quantitative procedures. Students were also administered the Test of Written Language-Third Edition, and teacher ratings and scores on a district rubric for writing were collected. Test-retest (Study 1 only) and alternate-form reliability, criterion validity, and winter-to-spring growth were examined for each measure. Sentence-copying, story, picture-word, and photo prompts emerged as promising beginning-writing measures. Findings have implications for monitoring student progress within a seamless and flexible system across ages and skill levels.

Curriculum-based measurement encompasses an assessment methodology that can be used to develop goals benchmarks or short-term objectives for individualized educational programs for students with disabilities. Teachers also use curriculum-based measurement as a means for monitoring student progress across the year. This paper describes curriculum-based measurement in reading and mathematics and provides sample goal statements for each area. In addition the

Three important features to examine for measures used to systematically monitor progress over time are (a) technical features of static scores, (b) technical features of slope, and (c) instructional utility. The purpose of this study was to investigate the technical features of slope of four early numeracy curriculum-based measures administered to kindergarten students. Approximately 200 students were assessed at the beginning and end of the school year, and a subset of students (n = 55) was assessed three additional times during the year. Growth curve analysis was used to model growth over time. The contribution of slope to explaining variance on a criterion measure was examined for the curriculum-based measures that fit a linear growth pattern. Implications are discussed regarding monitoring progress in early mathematics.

The assessment for accurate identification and appropriate instruction of English language learners (ELLs) with learning-related disabilities has remained a chronic source of concern. One source of concern that has gone relatively unchallenged is the use of general outcomes measurement (GOMs). The authors examine the problems and challenges of using outcome measures within the response to intervention (RTI) model in the identification and assessment of

Curriculum-based measurement encompasses an assessment methodology that can be used to develop goals, benchmarks, or short-term objectives for individualized educational programs for students with disabilities. Teachers also use curriculum-based measurement as a means for monitoring student progress across the year. This paper describes curriculum- based measurement in reading and mathematics and provides sample goal statements for each area. In addition,

This study evaluated the effects of a fluency-based reading program with 15 second and third grade students and 15 matched controls. Gains in oral reading fluency on untrained CBM probes were evaluated using a matched-pairs group-comparison design, whereas immediate and two-day retention gains in oral reading fluency on trained passages were evaluated using an adapted changing criterion design. Increases in WRCM due to training and number of trainings to criterion were also evaluated as a function of pre-training fluency levels. Results showed statistically significant gains on dependent measures for the treatment group, mean increases of two to three grade levels in passages mastered, and an optimal pre-training fluency range of 41-60 WRCM. Implications for fluency-based reading programs are discussed.

General outcome measures (GOMs) provide educators with a means to evaluate student progress toward curricular objectives. Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is one type of GOM that has a long history in the research literature with strong empirical support. With the increased emphasis on instruction linked to state standards and statewide achievement tests, the relationship between CBM and these measures has been called into question. This study examined the relationships between CBM of reading, math computation, and math concepts/applications and the statewide standardized achievement test as well as published norm-referenced achievement tests in two districts in Pennsylvania. Results showed that CBM had moderate to strong correlations with midyear assessments in reading and mathematics and both types of standardized tests across school districts. The data suggest that CBM can be one source of data that could be used to potentially identify those students likely to be successful or fail the statewide assessment measure.

In this article, the authors review the research on curriculum-based measurement (CBM) in reading published since the time of Marston's 1989 review. They focus on the technical adequacy of CBM related to measures, materials, and representation of growth. The authors conclude by discussing issues to be addressed in future research, and they raise the possibility of the development of a seamless and flexible system of progress monitoring that can be used to monitor students' progress across students, settings, and purposes.

The purpose of this extended commentary article is to frame the set of studies in the first of two issues and recommend areas of inquiry for future research. This special series issue features studies examining the technical qualities of formative assessment procedures that were developed to inform intervention. This article intends to emphasize issues in the current set of studies that do not appear central to early numeracy curriculum-based measurement (EN-CBM) research. To the extent possible, we expect that this two-volume series will result in scientific and practical advances. Despite this lofty intention, this series can neither represent all issues important to stakeholders nor characterize the full body of applied and basic research in early numeracy assessment. As such, we focus on a set of theoretical frameworks to guide the current and future development of EN-CBM.

The use of Curriculum-Based Measurement for evaluating treatment efficacy is described and discussed. The basic methods and applications of Curriculum-Based Measurement are described, followed by examples of its application in two intervention program evaluation projects. The first project involved one individual student experiencing academic difficulties. The second project focused on evaluating a reading instruction program for a group of students. In both examples, the use of Curriculum-Based Measurement contributed significantly to monitoring student progress in response to educational program variables and making treatment evaluation decisions.

This study examined the effects of controlling the level of difficulty on the sensitivity of repeated curriculum-based measurement (CBM). Participants included 99 students in Grades 2 through 5 who were administered CBM reading passage probes twice weekly over an 11-week period. Two sets of CBM reading progress monitoring materials were compared: (a) grade level material that was controlled for difficulty,

This study examined the type of growth model that best fit within-year growth in oral reading fluency and between-student differences in growth. Participants were 2,465 students in grades 3-5. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses modeled curriculum-based measurement (CBM) oral reading fluency benchmark measures in fall, winter, and spring with grade level and student characteristics (including special education and Limited English Proficiency status) as covariates. Results indicated that a discontinuous growth model fit the data better than a linear growth model, with greater growth in the fall than in the spring. Oral reading fluency growth rates also differed by grade and student characteristics. Implications for school practice and research are discussed.

In the present chapter we report a United States study that addressed the value of curriculum-based reading assessments in identifying young Second-Language Learners (SLLs) who would benefit from accommodated reading instruction. The curriculum-based assessments departed from standardized testing procedures. We investigated whether SLLs who began first and second grades with different English-as-a-Second Language (ESL) word-reading abilities demonstrated different Instructional Reading Level (IRL) trajectories. Forty-two SLL first- and second-grade children were followed for two years. At the start, Oral-English Ability (the only standardized test in the study) and Word-Reading Ability assessments were employed. Instructional Reading Level (IRL) was assessed at the beginning, middle, and end of each of the two years. A two-level hierarchical linear model was employed, with repeated measures on IRL nested within students, initial Word-Reading Ability as a predictor, and initial Oral-English Ability as a control variable. IRL trajectories differed according to initial levels of Word-Reading Ability. The trajectory gap between initially lower and higher word-readers increased over time. The findings indicated that proficiency in young SLLs’ early word-reading is important for their reading development. Also, reliable and valid curriculum-based measures may be important early identification tools for teachers to use with SLLs with differential needs.

Brief experimental analysis (BEA) can be used to specify intervention characteristics that produce positive learning gains for individual students. A key challenge to the use of BEA for intervention planning is the identification of performance indicators (including topography of the skill, measurement characteristics, and decision criteria) that meaningfully relate to longer term success in the learning environment. This study investigates the utility of various curriculum-based assessment and measurement estimates of mathematics performance for predicting functional outcomes (i.e., retention of learned skills over time and faster learning of related content in the future). All children in grades 2-5 at the participating school participated in protocol-based computational fluency-building intervention 4 days per week for an entire school year. Specific criteria were applied each week to systematically increase intervention difficulty classwide according to a pre-established sequence of computational skill objectives. Three measurements were routinely obtained. Each week children completed a timed probe of the skill for which intervention was currently occurring and a timed probe of previously mastered skills from the sequence of computational skill objectives. Each month, all children completed a timed probe of mathematics skills representing computational skills that students were expected to master by year's end at each grade level. At all grade levels, learning a skill that appeared early in the hierarchy or sequence of skills related positively to learning of future related and more complex computational skills. Fluency criteria were specified that predicted retention of the skill over several months.

The issue of properly identifying and assessing the instructional needs of new-or second-language learners of English suspected of having a learning disability continues to plague educational practitioners. This article discusses the merging of curriculum-based measurement and dynamic assessment as a process to support appropriate prereferral assessment and identification of these learners. The difficulties with current assessment approaches for this population are discussed. The article concludes with a rationale for and the initial results of the author's research on using note taking to build content vocabulary as a process for curriculum-based dynamic assessment.

Individualized service is a cornerstone of early childhood special education. A primary mechanism used to individualize services is the Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Unfortunately, many studies report that IEP goals and objectives tend to be poorly written and question the individualized nature of the IEP. The purpose of this study was to validate a strategy for improving the quality of written IEP goals and objectives. A diverse group of early childhood special educators was trained on writing quality IEP goals/objectives and using a curriculum-based measure called the Assessment, Evaluation, and Programming System (AEPS) for Three to Six Years. Results indicate the quality of written IEP goals and objectives improved following the IEP goal writing training and use of the AEPS Test.

This study examined the composition of vocabulary and preschoolers' vocabulary learning in an early literacy program. Fifty-six children with typical achievement, with special needs, and at risk for disabilities participated. Curriculum-based measures (CBM) were used to track children's receptive and expressive vocabulary growth over three curriculum units. Root and rare word compositional analyses described the vocabulary to be learned. Children's performance across units and by word type were compared. Results showed that the preschoolers gained vocabulary and that CBM was sensitive in measuring progress; the rate varied between groups, however, with typically achieving children making significant gains over time. Composition of vocabulary appeared more infuential on children's expressive rather than receptive vocabularies, with less growth by groups to recall rare words than root or basic words. Results suggest greater attention to the composition of vocabulary in early literacy programs and the need for CBM to monitor the vocabulary growth of diverse young learners.

This article examines the efficacy of current definitional perspectives on learning disabilities (LD) and related assessment models to support appropriate instructional and support services for learners of English with learning-related difficulties. A revised framework for defining LD and an associated assessment model, curriculum-based dynamic assessment (CDA), are proposed. The results of a teacher assessment study are reported to exemplify how this revised framework may be studied. The study examined the following questions: (a) Can curriculum-based dynamic assessments of authentic learning tasks help educators to differentiate between the work of students with limited English proficiency and their peers identified as having LD? (b) What are the characteristics of curriculum-based work samples of limited English proficient students with LD that may predictably differentiate them from their peers without LD?

This study examined the composition of vocabulary and preschoolers' vocabulary learning in an early literacy program. Fifty-six children with typical achievement, special needs, and at risk for disabilities participated. Curriculum-based measures (CBM) were used to track children's receptive and expressive vocabulary growth over three curriculum units. Root and rare word compositional analyses described the vocabulary to be learned. Children's performance across units and by word type were compared. Results showed that the preschoolers gained vocabulary and CBM was sensitive in measuring progress; the rate varied between groups, however, with typically achieving children making significant gains over time. Composition of vocabulary appeared more influential on children's expressive rather than receptive vocabularies, with less growth by groups to recall rare words than root or basic words. Results suggest greater attention to the composition of vocabulary in early literacy programs and the need for CBM to monitor the vocabulary growth of diverse young learners.

This study investigated slope bias on student background variables for both Curriculum Based Measurement of Oral Reading (CBM-R) and Curriculum Based Measurement Maze Reading (Maze). Benchmark scores from 1,738 students in Grades 3 through 8 were used to examine potential slope bias in CBM-R and Maze. Latent growth modeling was used to both estimate growth rates and examine the extent to which demographic variables affected the estimated growth rates. Results indicate a significant CBM-R slope bias on special education status at Grade 3 and on gender at Grade 7. For Maze, slope bias on gender was associated with Maze slope estimates at Grades 5 and 7. Slope bias on various demographic variables was not consistent across CBM measures and grades. Results and implications are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to examine technical and instructional features of a kindergarten curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tool designed to track students' mathematics progress in terms of computational concepts, procedures, and counting strategies. Students in 10 kindergarten classrooms in three elementary schools completed alternate forms of the CBM measure twice per month from January to May. Mathematics development was indexed on a standardized mathematics achievement test in May. Findings indicate strong reliability and validity of the CBM system, with coefficients exceeding .80 and .60, respectively. Technical features of the CBM system's skills analysis suggest implications for teachers' instructional decision-making.

The purpose of this study was to determine if event-related potential (ERP) data collected during three reading-related tasks (Letter Sound Matching, Nonword Rhyming, and Nonword Reading) could be used to predict short-term reading growth on a curriculum-based measure of word identification fluency over 19 weeks in a sample of 29 first-grade children. Results indicate that ERP responses to the Letter Sound Matching task were predictive of reading change and remained so after controlling for two previously validated behavioral predictors of reading, Rapid Letter Naming and Segmenting. ERP data for the other tasks were not correlated with reading change. The potential for cognitive neuroscience to enhance current methods of indexing responsiveness in a response-tointervention (RTI) model is discussed.