Comparative Indo-European Linguistics

This table began as a comparison of Etruscan words to other Indo-European words, and it is clear that the linkage to Etruscan illuminates some new patterns in Indo-European word relationships. We added for further comparison words from the Baltic group (Latvian), Kartvelian (Georgian) and Uralic (Finnish) and Basque, a "language isolate" that looks as much Indo-European as othes in the Indo-European group. For those who advocate Hurrian connections Hurrian words that are available have been added to the table.  *PIE specialists have been speculating on the idea that the three language families, Baltic, Uralic and Kartvelian may be related to Indo-European, perhaps as a super family.
  The Indo-European family of languages is believed to have originated north of the Black Sea (Pontic Region). Some scholars have indicated a Caucasus origin. Although we can't rule out borrowing among [unrelated] languages it appears from the interesting shifts that the languages in our "Indo-European Table may be one family. I found šāl-a, šali, šala (Hurrian)
ასული, asuli, daughter(Georgian); თვით, t’vit’, self (Georgian), sevi, self (Latvian), vete, (Albanian); ხუთი, khut’i, five (Georgian), пяць, piać (Belarussian), pieci (Latvian), pesë (Albanian), pente (Greek) and pajncha (Sanskrit) interesting. (The interesting relationships continue through the table. The table is alphabetically arranged via the right-hand column, Etruscan words.

There have been numerous attempts to find relatives of Proto-Indo-European, not the least of which is the Indo-Uralic Hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Uralic are alleged to descend from a common ancestor. However, attempts to prove this hypothesis have run into numerous difficulties. One difficulty concerns the inability to reconstruct the ancestral morphological system in detail, and another concerns the rather small shared vocabulary. This latter problem is further complicated by the fact that many scholars think in terms of borrowing rather than inheritance. Moreover, the lack of agreement in vocabulary affects the ability to establish viable sound correspondences and rules of combinability. This paper will attempt to show that these and other difficulties are caused, at least in large part, by the question of the origins of the Indo-European parent language. Evidence will be presented to demonstrate that Proto-Indo-European is the result of the imposition of a Eurasiatic language-to use Greenberg's term-on a population speaking one or more primordial Northwest Caucasian languages.

Genetic relations among Indo-Aryan languages are still unclear. Existing classifications are often intuitive and do not rest upon rigorous criteria. In the present article an attempt is made to create a classification of New Indo-Aryan languages, based on up-to-date lexicostatistical data. The comparative analysis of the resulting genealogical tree and traditional classifications allows the author to draw conclusions about the most probable genealogy of the Indo-Aryan languages.

We have seen that several vedic seals are standards containing,vedic metrology,vedic geneology and proclamations by vedic kings.In this article we are identifying the Vedic King Divodasa and his relation to Varanasi/Kaasi and the Kumbha Mela of Prayaga.

Presentation at “The Way We Think: A Research Symposium on Conceptual Integration and the Nature and Origin of Cognitively Modern Humans.” University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Demark, August 19-23,  2002. Document includes Supplemental Materials: Resource Guide and Commentaries
In recent years the relationship between language change and biological evolution has captured the attention of investigators operating in different disciplines, particularly evolutionary biology, AI and A-Life (Zeimke 2001, Hull 2001), as well as linguistics (Croft 2000; Sinha 1999), with each group often bringing radically different conceptualizations of the object under study, namely, “language” itself, to the debate.  Over the centuries, meanings associated with the expression “language” have been influenced by mappings of conceptual frames and inputs from the biological sciences onto the entity referred to as “language”. At the same time the prestige of the “science of linguistics” created a feedback mechanism by which the referentiality of “language”, at each stage, was mapped back into the field of evolutionary biology along with the emergent structure(s) of the resulting “blend”. While significant energy has been spent on identifying ways in which biological evolution has been linked to concepts of language evolution (Dörries 2002), little attention has been directed to the nature of the conceptual integration networks that have been produced in the process. This paper examines the way conceptual integration theory can be brought to bear on the “blends” that have been created, focusing primarily on examples drawn from 19th century debates concerning the “language-species-organism analogy” in the emerging field of comparative-historical philology.

This Excel file is a WORK IN PROGRESS on Indo-European basic lexicon, aligning PIE reconstructions from IEW, LIV and Mallory-Adams with intermediate reconstructions of IE sub-families found in several other sources (mainly Brill / Leiden etymological dictionaries): see dedicated sheet for details on sources.
Reconstructions with a green background have more complete data than those with a white background.
This DRAFT database is intended as a stepping stone for researchers who want to explore external genetic relationships between Indo-European languages and other language families.

Two tables: 1. Proto-Indo-European consonants and their reflexes in Elamite and other Indo-European languages, 2. Some of the most fundamental Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) words and roots, with their cognates in Elamite and other Indo-European languages.

The Harappan seals contain several linguistic symbols which have not been properly understood so far.Through my works especially- Indus script decipherment breakthrough, PaNameTa-the troy tower weight  and measure system of Harappa, The Harappan Symbol Of 
Man+ Trident And Its Relation To Kausika Visvamitra  And The Kalinga Malla MeTas( Tower Weights), The Harappan Unicorn And The Kalinga Malla MeTas(Tower Weights) , The Harappan Symbol Of  Intersecting Circles And Its Relation  To Kausika Visvamitra And The Kalinga Malla MeTas( Tower  weights), The Harappan Contest Motif Of Nude Man With Six Locks Of Hair Fighting  Two Tigers And Its Relation To The Kalinga Malla MeTas( Tower Weights), The Harappan symbols of Roots, Nuts And Cocks And Their  Relation    To Kausika Visvamitra And The Kalinga Malla MeTas( Tower  weights), Identification Of KaNva In The Indus Script, Identification Of Troy In The Indus script,Identification Of Barley And Mustard In The Indus Script, Krishna’s Mathura And Dvaraka In The Indus Script, The Pinna In The Indus Script, The Identity Of Vedic Sarasvati And The Location Of Krishna’s Dvaraka, Identification Of Vedic Bharadvaja In The Indus  Script, Krishna’s Dvaraka  In The Indus Script, One Symbol  Of Indus Script Can Tell  A Lot About The Indus Valley Civilisation, The Identity Of Kasyapa In The Indus Valley And Sumeria, Kusa -The Son Of Rama-In Mesopotamia(Sumer),Indus -Sumer Trade, A Few “Copper” Names In The Indus Script, Janaka-King Of Mithila-In The Indus Script,The Vedic Asvins, Yama And Kartikeya In The Indus Script, The Goddess Sarasvati And The Origin Of Brahmi And Kharoshthi, The Origin Of The Roman Aes Grave From The Indus Valley Money, A Solution To The Mystery Of  The Gundestrup  Cauldron, The Eternal Soma Of The Vedas,              Vedic Roots Of Ancient Egyptian Religion, A Veiled Visvamitra Soma Sacrifice  In The New Testament , The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-1:The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-2,
The Punny Plough,The Bearded Kings Of The Ancient,
Bharata -The Language Of The Indus Valley Civilisation,
The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation -3,The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-4,Harappan Vedic Sacrificial Feasts In Mesopotamian Art And In The Bible,The Script of Indus valley Civilisation-6 :A Vrishni Silver Coin And Its Harappan Source,The Script of Indus valley Civilisation-7: The Conversion Of Makha(Sacrifice) To Tanka(Mint) In The Indus Script,Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-8:Vedic Root Of Gudea’s Akshayapatra,Three Men In A Boat Seal Evidence Of Indus –Dilmun Trade,The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-9: The Goodluck Symbols Of The Indus Script, The script of Indus valley civilisation-10:Identification Of The True Vedic Soma From Harappan Seals  Confirms The Indus Valley Civilisation As Vedic, The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-11:
Daksha (Soma) Yaaga-The Vedic Eucharist -In The Indus Script , The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-12:
Dāśarājñá And Dasaratha In The Indus Script, The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-13:The Silver Palm Seals Are Rosetta Stones Of The Indus Script , Vedic And Sumerian Linguistic Evidences For The Language Of Harappa, The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-14:The Difference Of Meluhha And Mlecca,
The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-15:The Shift Of The Capital Of The Vrishnis From Mathura( Kalibangan) To Dvaraka( Mohenjodaro), 6000 Year Old Mehrgarh Wheel Amulet Employs Vedic Script, The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-16:Vedic Sarasvati-Ganga Civilisation, The Identity Of The RigVedic Rivers, Mohenjo-daro-The City Of Krishna -

I have shown that several seals contain vedic metrological terms,names of vedic ornaments,names of people, places and gods etc. My perception is that only a comprehensive study of ancient vedic  metrology can decipher the script symbols satisfactorily. A significant find herein is the existence of the Kalinga malla mana system during Harappan times challenging  the common perception of its origin from the later  Kalinga kingdom(Orissa).The unicorn is identified as the pala/nishka/soma/agni.Signs of intersecting circles, fish , crab,bud,tower etc. also indicate pala.The six locks of hair indicate  the paNameTa weight of six barley grains.Roots  and nuts indicate viira bhadra/ Drupada/ varaha/pala.We have located Lord Krishna’s Mathura and Dvaraka in the Indus valley scripts.
We have confirmed Mohenjodaro as the first Dvaraka
on the basis of the inscription on the copperplate B7C2 from there and textual evidences from the Rgveda, Mahabharata etc.We have located PadmakuuTa,one of the
palaces of Krishna there.Also we have identified the Sindhu(Indus) as the Vedic Sarasvati river.We have gone through the symbols  identifying the Bharadvajas,the clan of composers of the earliest vedic texts.In Krishna’s Dvaraka we gathered more details from the script on Lord Krishna’s Dvaraka and Sindhu/Sarasvati. We have looked into the
indications of the Harappan jar symbol with three forks on each edge.We have located  the Kasyapas in Hastinapura
trading with Sumeria.We have decoded the Mari Standard,went deeper into the meanings of several Sumerian images and confirmed Meluhha as Vedic Harappa/Indus valley. We have located Janaka,the king of Mithila,father-in-law of Rama, in the Indus script.We have identified the names of copper in the Indus script and located  the Asvins,Yama and Skanda  in the Indus script.In A Model For Indus Script Decipherment
we have identified the deity in the seal M-1181 and built a model for complete decipherment of the Indus script.
We have seen how  Brahmi and Kharoshthi evolved from the Indus Script and how the Indus script was in use along with Brahmi/Kharoshthi even into the  first centuries CE.We have seen how the coins of the ancient world,including the Roman coins evolved from the Indus valley money.
We have looked for  and located a Rosetta Stone for the Indus script, in the varaha/gadyanaka coin form.
We have gone into the relation of the Druids to the Indus valley civilisation and the role of their  Gundestrup cauldron
in the evolution of Christianity.
We have explored the relation of the Anau seal to the Indus Valley Civilisation.
We have gone into the relationship of the Egyptian and Harappan deities.
We have looked into a beautiful story from the New Testament
invoving  the vedic soma sacrifice in A Veiled Visvamitra Soma Sacrifice In The New Testament.
We have studied  the indications of some of the Indus script symbols with particular reference to their use on ancient coins of India .
We have looked into symbolism of the overflowing vase on the Sumerian statue of Gudea and through it we identified the indications of several Indus symbols including the Harischandra vaajapeya sacrifice.
We have seen how the Harappan glyphs served as goodluck symbols .
The identification of the right vedic soma has two important
aspects:First, it ends the long quest for the mysterious soma. Second,it confirms the Indus valley civilisation as vedic ,beyond any doubt.
We have studied the vedic Daksha Yaaga  and its relation to the soma yaaga.Also we have located  Dāśarājñá and  Dasaratha in the Indus seals.
We have explored the application of the palm seals as further rosetta stones of the Indus script .
We have looked into the claim of mlecca as the language of the Indus valley civilation and concluded that Bharata,not mlecca, was the language of the Indus valley civilisation.
We have gone into the shift of the vedic Yadava clans from the Ghaggar-Hakra(Yamuna) to the Sarasvati(Sindhu) basin.
In another article we have confirmed the river Sindhu as the vedic river Sarasvati and Mohenjodaro as Krishna’s Dvaraka.
In this article we are going into a majestic bull seal.

According to the  prevalent history of Bharata varsha as told by western scholars the Indus valley civilisation belonged to the
Dravida/Munda people and the vedic people(Aryans) reached India around 1900 BCE only . But in reality the Indus civilisation is vedic and the vedic people were in the Indus Valley at least from 6000BCE as seen from the excavations.
If an unknown script can explain the known myth and known history of a nation,what more proof is required to show that the script belongs to the same people.The script of Egypt explains
their myth and history.The script of Sumer,Akkad or Elam does the same.So it is natural for the Indus script to denote the myth
and history of the Hindu/Sindhu / Sarasvati/ vindu/vipra/sura/ bhuusura/bhudeva/bharata/kuru/pancala/Somaka  people.Hence we shall try to understand a bit of Indian history through the Indus script.We shall presently see  evidences pointing to the existence of the Aryans in the Indus Valley several millennia prior to the so called Aryan
arrival in the Indus valley.

In the last  articles we have looked into the writing of the Harappans in the early Ravi/Kot Diji phases and concluded that they are the same vedic people of the mature Harappan phase;we have  compared an inscribed  Ravi sherd showing  presence of the Pancalas/ Bharatas in the Indus valley before 3300BCE and a Taxila coin showing their presence in Taxila around 200 BCE confirming the continuity of the vedic civilisation in the Indus Valley from the early Harappan days;we have seen how an indus seal
portray the story of Ahalya described in later literature;
we have explored the universal idea of the mount of the dead Concept In The  Worship Of The Sun God .
One of the reasons for the hesitation of scholars  to accept
the Indus valley civilisation as vedic is that the Rg veda has
several passages referring to Asva-the horse and the veda
itself states that its horse has 34 ribs whereas modern horse
usually has 36 ribs.
In the last article we have gone into the issue of the vedic
horse and the number of its ribs. Interestingly many of the Harappan Inscriptions refer to the Asvamedha itself as we will see in the present article.There was no horse,but they are speaking of asvamedhas!

In this paper we investigate different types of argument-structure constructions associated with so-called experiential predicates in Early Vedic, Homeric Greek and Early Latin. We argue that the broad range of argument-realisation patterns associated with experiential verbs in these languages reflects the fact that experiential predicates differ in fundamental respects from prototypically transitive verbs which we take to represent the perhaps most salient verb type in natural language. We survey the most important construction types attested in the domain of experience in the languages under scrutiny with particular regard to recurrent paths of association between experiential verb classes and their argument-realisation options. Finally, on the basis of our data we provide some proposals regarding the main tendencies in the linguistic organisation of this complex functional domain in Proto-Indo-European.

ºðºì²Ü îºÔ²Üì²Ü ̲ ¶Ø²Ü Þàôðae ²ñÙ»Ý ä»ïñáëÛ³Ý (Ðݳ·ÇïáõÃÛ³Ý ¨ ³½·³·ñáõÃÛ³Ý ÇÝëïÇïáõï) 1) ºñ¨³Ý ³Ýí³ÝáõÙÁ ѳÛÏ³Ï³Ý Ñ³Ù³ï»ùëïáõÙ Ùdzݷ³Ù³ÛÝ Ã³÷³ÝóÇÏ Ï³éáõóí³Íù áõÝÇ: ÐÝáõÙ »ñ¨³Ý (Û»ñ¨³Ý, Û»ñ¨³ÝÇ ï³ñµ»ñ³ÏÝ»ñáí) Ýß³Ý³Ï»É ¿` §»ñ¨áõÙÝ ¨ »ñ¨»ÉÇ. Û³Ûï. Û³ÛïÝǦ. »ñ¨³Ý ·³É, »ñ¨³Ý Ñ³Ý»É §Ç Û³Ûï ·³É, »ñ¨ÇÉ, Û³Ûïݻɦ 1 : ²ñ¹Ç ѳۻñ»ÝáõÙ ³ñ˳ǽ٠¿, áñÁ ÏÇñ³éíáõÙ ¿ áñå»ë ѳñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»-ñÇ µ³Õ³¹ñÇã` »ñ¨³Ý µ»ñ»É, »ñ¨³Ý ·³É, »ñ¨³Ý Ñ³Ý»É ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáõÙ 2 : ¸»ñç³ÝÇó ѳÛïÝÇ ¿ ºñ¨³Ýë ·ÛáõÕÁ 3 , ³ÏÝѳÛïáñ»Ý, ÝáõÛÝ³Ï³Ý ºñ¨³ÝÇÝ, Ñá·Ý³ÏÇ Ñ³Ûó³Ï³Ý ÑáÉáí³Ó¨áí, ³ÛëÇÝùÝ` ³Û¹ µ³éÇ ï»Õ³Ýí³Ý³Ï³Ý ÏÇñ³éáõÃÛáõÝÁ ÙdzÏÁ ã¿: ºñ»õ-³ñÙ³ïÁ µÝÇÏ Ñ³ÛÏ³Ï³Ý ¿ 4 , áñÁ ѳݹ»ë ¿ ·³ÉÇë ݳ¨ ³ÛÉ Ñ³ÛÏ³Ï³Ý ï»Õ³ÝáõÝÝ»ñáõÙ` ºñ»õ»³É, ºñ»õ³ñ: ÄáÕáíñ¹³Ï³Ý ³í³Ý¹áõÃÛáõÝÁ Ù»ç ºñ¨³ÝÁ ϳåíáõÙ ¿ ÜáÛÇ ³Ýí³Ý Ñ»ï` ǵñ ÜáÛÝ ¿ ³Û¹å»ë Ïáã»É ³é³çÇÝ çñѻջÕÇó Ñ»ïá »ñ¨³óáÕ ³Ýçáõñ í³ÛñÁ 5 : ²ÛëåÇëáí, ºñ¨³Ý ï»Õ³ÝáõÝÁ Ùdzݷ³Ù³ÛÝ µÝ³Ï³Ý Ï»ñåáí ϳåí»É ¿ ѳٳÑáõÝã µ³éÇÝ:

This article discusses the collective names of trees used in the Scandinavian languages, as well as the formation process of similar collective names in Eastern and Western Germanic. It should be emphasized that the Northern Germanic languages used the suffix *-ijan for creating collective nouns which denote ‘a group of trees’, e. g. ON. birki n. coll. ‘birch forest’, Icel. birki ‘birch forest; birch’, Norw. birki ‘birch forest’, Swed. björke ‘birch forest, birch grove’ (< PG. *berkijan n. coll. ‘a group of birches, birch forest, birch grove’ <-- PG. *berkō f. ‘birch, Betula’). The same suffix denoting collectivity and originating from the Proto-Indo-European language is also present as *-ьje in most Slavic languages, cf. Ru. dial. берéзье n. coll. ‘birch forest, birch twigs’; OPol. brzezie n. ‘birch grove or forest’; Cz. březí n. ‘small birch-grove’, also břízí n. ‘birch twigs, birch-wood’; Slovak brezie n. ‘small birch-forest, birch-grove’; SC. brȇzje n. coll. ‘birch forest’, Sloven. brẹ̑ zje n. ‘id.’ (< PSl. *berzьje n. coll. ‘group of birches, birch forest, birch- grove’ <-- PSl. *bȅrza f. ‘birch, Betula’). Further possible traces of the same suffix can be found in the Baltic languages (cf. OPrus. pannean n. ‘mossy fen’ vs. Go. fani n. ‘mud’, OSax. feni n. ‘fen’) suggesting that the Proto-Indo-European collective suffix can be reconstructed as *-ii̯om (n. coll.). It seems probable that some northern Indo-European tribes used the derivative word *bherh̥2ĝii̯ om (n.) to denote ‘a group of birch trees’, espe- cially ‘a birch grove’ or ‘a birch forest’.

This document shows the process leading to the discovery of some features in the Iberian language which allow us to translate most of the words in this language and to confirm its close relationship with Basque, a language that we find Iberian to share its vocabulary roots with.

We first describe the process followed in order to decipher the Iberian language, highlighting elements which increase the number of identifiable coincidences between Iberian and Basque such as compound words with either identical or similar meaning in both languages and inverse adjective-substantive order in their syllables or the confirmation that the symbols used in Iberian to represent syllable sets in the case of occlusive consonants may express not only either a “consonant + vowel” sequence or just the consonant,  as thought up to now, but also the option “vowel + consonant”.

The application of these findings already allows us to translate Iberian texts and to discover that the vocabularies of both languages share the same roots, usually two letters long, which have their own meaning and form words both by themselves and with and additional phoneme which adds a root-independent shade to the root’s meaning.

This new information allows us to improve our knowledge of the Iberian language not only in terms of vocabulary but also, by deduction, of its grammar. This opens the way to deciphering this language completely in the short term. This document includes a dictionary with almost 500 Iberian words and the translations into Spanish of 50 Iberian texts selected among the most complete and representative of the Iberian texts.

धारूरकर (२०११) चे हे मराठी रूप. इंग्रजी रूप हे http://www.jstor.org/stable/41692128 या दुव्यावर उपलब्ध आहेच. शिवाय इथेही त्याची एक प्रत सापडेल. संस्कृतातील तम आणि थ हे प्रत्यय आर्थिक पातळीवर कसे जवळ आहेत, इतर भाषांत क्रमवाचकता आणि तमवाचकता कशी हाताळली जाते याबाबत ऊहापोह इथे सापडेल. मी एम ए च्या शेवटच्या वर्षांत असताना लिहिलेला असा हा माझा निबंध!

par Émilia Ndiaye.
—
Le présent ouvrage a pour objectif d’initier les étudiants à la grammaire comparée en prenant le cas du latin et du grec. Il présente un bref historique de la méthode comparative concernant les langues indo-européennes, de son fonctionnement et des résultats auxquels on aboutit à propos de l’indo-européen. Le corps du manuel consiste en une présentation de l’évolution de l’indo-européen vers le latin et vers le grec, avec des exercices : en partant des étymons indo-européens (théorie de la racine d’Émile Benveniste) on analyse les transformations dans les domaines de la phonétique et de la formation des mots (suffixation, préfixation).

Pour permettre aux étudiants de disposer des outils nécessaires, sont fournis des éléments bibliographiques qui permettent d’approfondir le travail sur les points abordés dans l’ouvrage, les corrigés des exercices proposés ainsi que des tableaux récapitulatifs de phonétique (indo-européenne, latine, grecque), deux lexiques des principaux étymons indo-européens, la liste des principaux suffixes et celle des préfixes.

Public cible
L'ouvrage s'adresse à tout public qui s'intéresse à l'histoire des langues indo-européennes, dans une perspective comparatiste, avec l'exemple du latin et du grec ; il convient particulièrement à un public universitaire, étudiants qui travaillent sur la linguistique latine ou grecque et sur l'histoire des langues, en Lettres ou en Sciences du langage. Il sera également fort utile pour la préparation des concours de l'Agrégation de Grammaire, Lettres classiques ou Lettres modernes.

Détails et table des matières sur http://www.safran.be/proddetail.php?prod=LCA14

An evaluation of whether the special endings that appear on Anatolian neuter gender nouns in Agent-function reflect split-NP ergativity or an 'animatising' derivative. Appendix includes an exploration of why the Anatolian 'animatising' derivative may have emerged.

Книга представляет собой  попытку рассмотрения с точки зрения самых разных специальных дисциплин предмета, который каждому знаком с самого раннего детства. Целью такого объединения усилий авторского коллектива было стремление возродить жанр научно-популярной литературы, последнее время в отечественной науке оказавшийся в некотором пренебрежении.
Значительная часть представленных в книге разделов посвящена значению березы для культуры народов Старого Света.  Наряду с этим два раздела посвящены представлениям о березе по преимуществу в славянском ареале, включая мифопоэтический и культовый аспекты использования березы, причем, как можно думать, не случайно ритуальная и мифопоэтическая традиция соседствуют уже на самых ранних этапах европейской культуры, сохраняя свое значение и в культуре Нового времени, где береза занимает столь важное место в типовом пейзаже русской живописи.

The present study intends to scrutinize some synchronic anomalies concerning the Albanian system of negative marking, which consists of the four negators, namely as/s’ (first declarative negation, glossed as NEG.DECL1), nuk (second declarative negation, glossed as NEG.DECL2), mos (prohibitive negation, glossed as NEG.PROH), and jo (negative responsive negation, glossed as NEG.RESP).
The Albanian system of negative marking exhibits a comparatively high degree of inheritance and persistence, comprising the following traits and parameters:
• In the domain of declarative negations s’ and nuk, Albanian preserves the IE rule of preverbal negation placement (see 3c).
• Like other IE languages Albanian maintains the PIE rule of negator-nominalization (SpecAdjP), i.e., when scoping over attributive adjectives (see 3d).
• Albanian has inherited the PIE dichotomy of declarative and prohibitive negation (see 3f).
• The prohibitive negation mos is sentential and elidable (see 3g).
Albanian has developed an innovative negative-response particle jo which descends from the negated clause PIE *ne-h1est(i) ‘it is not; is non-existent; it is not true’. Noteworthy is the fact that the sentential clausal origin is preserved in some Albanian constructions, such as in the affirmative tag question apo jo ‘or [is it] not [the case]?’ (see 3e, h-j).

The grammatical feminine gender was developed by Indo-European in relatively recent times, and was superimposed on an older system of two genders (animate / inanimate). The virtual totality of Indo-Europeanists would agree with this affirmation; but there is no agreement between researchers over the factors which led to the emergence of this new gender.
By analyzing the diverse uses of the suffix * eH2 , Karl Brugmann managed to explain why the feminine grammatical gender includes many words which are not semantically feminine. Brugmann’s perspective is still substantially correct, but, in the exact terms in which he formulated this theory (more than a hundred years ago), it cannot give a satisfactory explanation to three important questions: (1) How did the diversity of uses of the suffix * (e)H2 originate? (2) How did some adjectives develop specific forms for feminine agreement? (3) Why are the ā stems and the thematic declension in complementary distribution?
The different theories that have been proposed since Brugmann can some-times answer one or (at best) two of these questions, but there is not a theory which can resolve the three questions simultaneously. Such a theory is, precisely, the object of the present study.

The present paper provides a typological study of the semantic shift from ‘word’ or ‘speech’ and from speech act verbs to nouns with the meaning ‘thing’. The evidence for such a shift was found in various Indo-European and Semitic languages, as well as in Japanese, Hurrian, and Chatino. This semantic shift is unidirectional. The meaning ‘thing (material object)’ can be developed from ‘word’, ‘speech’ or verba dicendi only through the stage ‘matter’. The semantic change in question can have an areal nature. Ancient Near East is an area where it is especially common.

A word-by-word explanation of the translation of the so-called creation hymn of Rigveda. The translation is very different from traditional ones.

As I demonstrate, the hymn has been completely misunderstood by previous translators.

The hymn has nothing to do with the origin or creation of the Universe. It is in fact, simply a prayer to God.

The Harappan seals contain several linguistic symbols which have not been properly understood so far.Through my works especially- Indus script decipherment breakthrough, PaNameTa-the troy tower weight  and measure system of Harappa, The Harappan Symbol Of 
Man+ Trident And Its Relation To Kausika Visvamitra  And The Kalinga Malla MeTas( Tower Weights), The Harappan Unicorn And The Kalinga Malla MeTas(Tower Weights) , The Harappan Symbol Of  Intersecting Circles And Its Relation  To Kausika Visvamitra And The Kalinga Malla MeTas( Tower  weights), The Harappan Contest Motif Of Nude Man With Six Locks Of Hair Fighting  Two Tigers And Its Relation To The Kalinga Malla MeTas( Tower Weights), The Harappan symbols of Roots, Nuts And Cocks And Their  Relation    To Kausika Visvamitra And The Kalinga Malla MeTas( Tower  weights), Identification Of KaNva In The Indus Script, Identification Of Troy In The Indus script,Identification Of Barley And Mustard In The Indus Script, Krishna’s Mathura And Dvaraka In The Indus Script, The Pinna In The Indus Script, The Identity Of Vedic Sarasvati And The Location Of Krishna’s Dvaraka, Identification Of Vedic Bharadvaja In The Indus  Script, Krishna’s Dvaraka  In The Indus Script, One Symbol  Of Indus Script Can Tell  A Lot About The Indus Valley Civilisation, The Identity Of Kasyapa In The Indus Valley And Sumeria, Kusa -The Son Of Rama-In Mesopotamia(Sumer),Indus -Sumer Trade, A Few “Copper” Names In The Indus Script, Janaka-King Of Mithila-In The Indus Script,The Vedic Asvins, Yama And Kartikeya In The Indus Script, The Goddess Sarasvati And The Origin Of Brahmi And Kharoshthi, The Origin Of The Roman Aes Grave From The Indus Valley Money, A Solution To The Mystery Of  The Gundestrup  Cauldron, The Eternal Soma Of The Vedas,              Vedic Roots Of Ancient Egyptian Religion, A Veiled Visvamitra Soma Sacrifice  In The New Testament , The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-1:The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-2,
The Punny Plough,The Bearded Kings Of The Ancient,
Bharata -The Language Of The Indus Valley Civilisation,
The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation -3,The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-4,Harappan Vedic Sacrificial Feasts In Mesopotamian Art And In The Bible,The Script of Indus valley Civilisation-6 :A Vrishni Silver Coin And Its Harappan Source,The Script of Indus valley Civilisation-7: The Conversion Of Makha(Sacrifice) To Tanka(Mint) In The Indus Script,Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-8:Vedic Root Of Gudea’s Akshayapatra,Three Men In A Boat Seal Evidence Of Indus –Dilmun Trade,The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-9: The Goodluck Symbols Of The Indus Script, The script of Indus valley civilisation-10:Identification Of The True Vedic Soma From Harappan Seals  Confirms The Indus Valley Civilisation As Vedic, The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-11:
Daksha (Soma) Yaaga-The Vedic Eucharist -In The Indus Script , The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-12:
Dāśarājñá And Dasaratha In The Indus Script, The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-13:The Silver Palm Seals Are Rosetta Stones Of The Indus Script , Vedic And Sumerian Linguistic Evidences For The Language Of Harappa, The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-14:The Difference Of Meluhha And Mlecca,
The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-15:The Shift Of The Capital Of The Vrishnis From Mathura( Kalibangan) To Dvaraka( Mohenjodaro), 6000 Year Old Mehrgarh Wheel
Amulet Employs Vedic Script, The Script Of Indus Valley
Civilisation-16:Vedic Sarasvati-Ganga Civilisation, The Identity Of  The RigVedic Rivers, Mohenjo-daro-The City Of Krishna , Gods fighting Dragons,The Script Of Indus Valley Civilisation-17:A Harappan Seal With A Majestic Bull,The Sindhu Is The Vedic Sarasvati ,Suvarna Is Not The Vedic Soma,Govinda Garudadhvaja Vishtarasrava-The Supreme God Of The Harappans, The Continuity Of Vedic Bharata Varsha Civilisation From Harappa To The Present , The Etymology of Irinjalakuda A Rosetta Stone For The Indus Script, The Identification Of The Royal Throne In The Indus Script,
The Identification Of The Royal Throne Of Lord Krishna In The Indus Script, The Star Of Bethlehem And  Its Relation To The Indus Script, The ‘Sma’ In Metal Names Of The Indus Glyphs, The Significance Of The Madhya-Ma In The Indus script, A Harappan Spiked Throne Confirms Vedic Identity Of  Indus Valley Civilisation, Vedic Rajasuya-The Harappan Ritual Of Inaugurating Kings As Gods -

I have shown that several seals contain vedic metrological terms,names of vedic ornaments,names of people, places and gods etc. My perception is that only a comprehensive study of ancient vedic literature, temple legends ,vedic rites and rituals, along with vedic  metrology alone can decipher the script symbols satisfactorily.A brief attempt in this direction is made here .A significant find herein is the existence of the Kalinga malla mana system during Harappan times challenging  the common perception of its origin from the later  Kalinga kingdom(Orissa).The unicorn is identified as the pala/nishka/soma/agni.Signs of intersecting circles, fish , crab,bud,tower etc. also indicate pala.The six locks of hair indicate  the paNameTa weight of six barley grains.Roots  and nuts indicate viira bhadra/ Drupada/ varaha/pala.We have located Lord Krishna’s Mathura and Dvaraka in the Indus valley scripts.
We have confirmed Mohenjodaro as the first Dvaraka
on the basis of the inscription on the copperplate B7C2 from there and textual evidences from the Rgveda, Mahabharata etc.We have located PadmakuuTa,one of the palaces of Krishna there.Also we have identified the Sindhu(Indus) as the Vedic Sarasvati river.We have gone through the symbols  identifying the Bharadvajas,the clan of composers of the earliest vedic texts.In Krishna’s Dvaraka we gathered more details from the script on Lord Krishna’s Dvaraka and Sindhu/Sarasvati. We have looked into the indications of the Harappan jar symbol with three forks on each edge.We have located  the Kasyapas in Hastinapura trading with Sumeria.We have decoded the Mari Standard,went deeper into the meanings of several Sumerian images and confirmed Meluhha as Vedic Harappa/Indus valley. We have located Janaka,the king of Mithila,father-in-law of Rama, in the Indus script.We have identified the names of copper in the Indus script and located  the Asvins,Yama and Skanda  in the Indus script.In A Model For Indus Script Decipherment we have identified the deity in the seal M-1181 and built a model for complete decipherment of the Indus script.
We have seen how  Brahmi and Kharoshthi evolved from the Indus Script and how the Indus script was in use along with Brahmi/Kharoshthi even into the  first centuries CE.We have seen how the coins of the ancient world,including the Roman coins evolved from the Indus valley money.
We have looked for  and located a Rosetta Stone for the Indus script, in the varaha/gadyanaka coin form.
We have gone into the relation of the Druids to the Indus valley civilisation and the role of their  Gundestrup cauldron
in the evolution of Christianity.
We have explored the relation of the Anau seal to the Indus Valley Civilisation.
We have gone into the relationship of the Egyptian and Harappan deities.
We have looked into a beautiful story from the New Testament
invoving  the vedic soma sacrifice in A Veiled Visvamitra Soma Sacrifice In The New Testament.
We have studied  the indications of some of the Indus script symbols with particular reference to their use on ancient coins of India .
We have looked into symbolism of the overflowing vase on the Sumerian statue of Gudea and through it we identified the indications of several Indus symbols including the Harischandra vaajapeya sacrifice.
We have seen how the Harappan glyphs served as goodluck symbols .
The identification of the right vedic soma has two important
aspects:First, it ends the long quest for the mysterious soma. Second,it confirms the Indus valley civilisation as vedic ,beyond any doubt.
We have studied the vedic Daksha Yaaga  and its relation to the soma yaaga.Also we have located  Dāśarājñá and  Dasaratha in the Indus seals.
We have explored the application of the palm soma seals as further rosetta stones of the Indus script .
We have looked into the claim of mlecca as the language of the Indus valley civilation and concluded that Bharata,not mlecca, was the language of the Indus valley civilisation.
We have gone into the shift of the vedic Yadava clans from the Ghaggar-Hakra to the Sarasvati(Sindhu) basin.
We have confirmed the river Sindhu as the Rig vedic river Sarasvati and the Ghaggar/Hakra  as the Yamuna.
We have established that the unicorn standard
of Harappan civilisation is  Govinda/Vishnu the supreme
god of the Harappans .We have also identified vedic
genealogies in some of the Bharata varsha seals
establishing the continuity of vedic civilisation from
Harappan times to the present day.We have also
gone into a possible link of the names of
the Harappan Mathura and Mesopotamian Assur.
We  have identified some of the Harappan glyphs indicating kings,thrones and palaces.
W have identified some of the symbols of Lord Krishna in the Indus script.
We have looked into the sma in metal names of the Indus script and the significance of the madhya-ma /naama.
We have identified the Visvamitra-Sunasepha story in the lady of spiked throne of Harappa.
We have gone into the significance of the Rajasuya ritual of Harappa.
We have looked into some of the metal work symbols employed by the Kausika/Bharata/Visvakarma
metal workers of Bharata Varsha/Harappa.
We have gone into the royal seats of Visvamitra,
Rama,Bharata,Krishna etc.in the Sindhu-Yamuna basin.
In the last article we have looked into the influence of the Harappan Bharatas in Hattusa,Mitanni,Egypt etc.
In this article we are attempting to read a New Indus seal inscription from Ganweriwala,reported by Dr. Asko Parpola and
Sidra Gulzar.

The publication under review is a perfectly prepared edition, arranged according to the conceptual form of encyclopedic entries. It contains both the standard headings (e.g. Illyrian language, pp. 287-289; Indo-European homeland, pp. Ż90-299; Jastorf culture, pp' 321-322) and the typical lexical entries (e.g. insects, p. 312, with hve nominal lexemes; Jump, pp. 323-324, rł'ith ten verbal roots), accompanied with plentiful tables, sketches, cfossreferences and bibliographical sources. There are useful indexes (Language index, pp. 659193, and General index, pp. 795-8Ż3), which permit us to find a question with no problem.

This paper honours BEDŘICH HROZNÝ's discovery of the Indo-European character of Hittite by dedicating the solution to the Proto-Indo-European laryngeal problem to him: (i) Proto-Indo-European had a single laryngeal *ḫ (ZGUSTA 1951), a glottal fricative (SZÉMERENYI 1970) with voiceless and voiced variants PIE *h/ɦ (PYYSALO 2013 = SPIE). (ii) The proto-language also had a vowel PIE *ɑ (*ǝ = *A), not identical with Hitt. ḫ (versus KURYŁOWICZ 1927) but a low/open back unrounded vowel. (iii) PIE *h/ɦ and *ɑ always appeared together in diphonemic pairs PIE *hɑ/ɑh/ɦɑ/ɑɦ (strict phonotactic selection). (iv) These hypotheses suffice to solve the problems of the entire segmental Indo-European sound law system, completely revised in SPIE. The outcome is internally and externally consistent, and surpasses the earlier models in accuracy. (v) PIE *h/ɦ and *ɑ constitute the missing link of the proto-sound system, and imply the primary Proto-Indo-European phoneme inventory: PIE *o/ō *e/ē *ɑ/ɑ̄ ? *h/ɦ *i/i̯ *k/g *l/l̥ *m/m̥ *n/n̥ *p/b *r/r̥ *s/z *t/d *u/u̯ These revisions are now digitally tested and proven with the foma programming language at http://pielexicon.hum.helsinki.fi: The success rate in generating more than a hundred most ancient Indo-European languages exceeds 99%.

Please go to the latest document of this series: "2500 PIE ROOTS DECIPHERED (THE SOURCE CODE 2.5" https://www.academia.edu/33538549/2500_PIE_ROOTS_DECIPHERED_THE_SOURCE_CODE_2.5

"As already disclosed in “The Origin of the Indo-European Languages” (2012), each letter (phoneme) in PIE roots had its own meaning and PIE roots actually were descriptions of the concepts that they referred to. In summary, PIE roots (each one of them with its own lexical meaning) had a CVC basic structure where each phoneme had its own general sense which, for consonants, changed to just the opposite, within the same concept, when placed at the end of the root. The concept that the word referred to was indicated by the initial consonant while the closing one determined the final meaning of the word.

This new document, focused only on PIE roots, explains the meaning of over 800 of them, adding 400 roots to the previous list and significantly improving the equivalence table included in the initial version.
"

Every language is peculiar in terms of its morphological system, yet the languages descended from the same language family are also thought to have similar morphological forms and functions. English and Pashto are the descendants of the same language family, known as the Indo-European. These two languages demonstrate significant resemblance in the functions of inflectional morphemes. While English has a limited inflectional morphology, Pashto has a richer morphological system. Comparative linguists suggest that the two languages owe this resemblance to the influence of Greek, their parent or proto-language. This study takes an in-depth view of similarities and differences in the functions of English and Pashto inflectional morphemes.

who prophesied destruction of Troy, image and name on mirror DM AECAI DM-6 aegis, shield, L. aegis-idis, See also EGIS (EbIS) AEKiS Z-46 bronze, metal, L. aes, aeris, AES XA-36, XB-35 Jason, leader of the Argonauts, shown in mirror DF-3, where Orestes is pictured murdering his mother. (See NATHOM) AEITHEON (AEIΘVN), DF-4 age, a lifetime, time of life, age, persons of a particular age, L. aetas-atis, as in "aetas puerilis," puerilis, boys, AETOS (AETVS) CCH-4 age, lifetime, L. aetas-atis; It. agio; Fr. Âge, to go, AGE (AbE) R248, R334 age, lifetime (L. aetas-atis; It. agio; Fr. Âge

Current consensus among Etruscologists includes 43 glosses for basic lexicon, 20 glosses for non-basic lexicon and 24 glosses for bound morphemes.
51% of basic lexicon, 40% of non basic-lexicon and 42% of bound morphemes from such consensus glosses have solid Indo-European etymologies with regular and simple sound correspondences. This evidence is well above the statistical threshold for chance resemblances plus loans, and therefore proves that Etruscan has an extremely high probability of being an Indo-European language.
Specific evidence (incl. e.g. possessive adjectives used as genitives) further points to an Anatolian origin of Etruscan.

In the talk it is argued that in PIE the so-called thematic present stems originally inflected in the same way as the so-called athematic ones. In the singular, the difference between the " primary " indicative mood inflectional forms and their " secondary " injunctive mood counterparts was marked solely by PIE *-i attached to the relevant verb form. This means that this part of the PIE conjugation system was nearly identical with what is attested in ancient Indo-Iranian. The deviating " primary " inflectional forms in the individual IE languages can be plausibly explained within the individual history of these languages. Such explanations become available as soon as one takes into consideration (a) the laws of final syllables relevant to these particular languages, (b) the possibility of a recent univerbation of finite verbs with sentence particles and other clitics.

""Etruscan is an Indo-European language, probably belonging to a sub-branch of Anatolian which does not include Hittite. This claim is based on the following evidence:
• only lexical items for which Etruscologists have proposed a gloss have been used in this research (no attempt has been made at proposing new glosses for currently obscure or highly controversial Etruscan terms);
• 138 of the glosses put forth by Etruscologists belong to basic lexicon, and 97% of such basic lexicon has an IE etymology;
• 19 grammar morphemes have also been assigned a value by Etruscologists: 95% of them have an IE etymology;
• all such etymologies are based on regular sound laws;
• a few notable innovations are shared by Etruscan and Anatolian languages (often excluding Hittite).""

Nazarii A. Nazarov. The Ukrainian etymological lexicography: theory, history, and practice. – Manuscript.
Dissertation for obtaining the scientific degree of candidate of philology, specialty 10.02.01 – the Ukrainian language. – Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University of Ministry of education and science of Ukraine, 2016.

The present study explores factors that influenced Ukrainian practice of
compiling etymological dictionaries in diachronic and synchronic aspects, its
connection with the wider cultural context. Regularity of the consequence of the stages
of lexicography, etymological lexicography included, is demonstrated and its
connection with establishing national state is showed.
The present study is aimed at metalinguistic analysis of Ukrainian and
European etymological lexicography methodological basis. Its main goal is to
explicate interdependencies between ideology (cultural, religious or scientific

22

narrative) and etymologizing patterns in etymological dictionaries, to reveal
reflexes of different scientific epochs in the present state of Ukrainian etymology.
Before etymological dictionary as distinctive genre of linguistic research
appeared, both lexicography and etymology have passed through several
evolutionary stages that coincided with changing of epistemes (according to
Michel Foucault), both having their origins in mythological view on the word as
magical force. Especially strong ties tied Byzantine and Byzantine-oriented
countries’ (such as Ukraine before XIX c.) lexicography and etymology with sacral
sphere. Both first Byzantine (e.g. Suda) and Ukrainian (e.g. that of P. Berynda)
dictionaries bore catechetical functions as well as first etymologizing practices of
these areas belonged to folklore rooted figura etymologica or ‘folk etymology’.
Ukrainian etymology in XIX c. combined results of comparative method
with focus on the inner form of a word (elaborated by O.O. Potebnya), that was
possible due to special attention to the language awareness immanent to folklore
(both O.O. Potebnya and P.Ya. Lukashevych were both linguists and folklorists).
Classical Indo-European etymological dictionaries did not succeed in
handling problem of heterogeneity of the languages they studied because of
methodological biases against material beyond Indo-European range. The
etymologists from the Slavic countries (S. Mladenov, V. Machek, O. Trubachev)
developed their own methodological approach concentrated on the heterogeneity of
the lexicon. Ukrainian school of etymological research (O.S. Melnychuk,
V.T. Kolomiyets, O.B. Tkachenko, A.P. Nepokupnyi etc.) elaborated these
problematic issues mainly ignored in other spheres of Indo-European studies, so
their results have meaning beyond the range of the Ukrainian studies.

In the context of etymological dictionaries of Slavic and other Indo-
European languages, compiled in XVII-XXI c., characteristic features of Ukrainian

etymological dictionaries is showed. Ukrainian etymological lexicography
(especially its monumental work ‘Etymological dictionary of the Ukrainian
language’ directed by acad. O.S. Melnychuk) combined positive aspects of the
methodological approaches developed in the classical Indo-European studies (keen
attention to phonetic correspondences) with innovations of the Slavic and
Ukrainian etymological schools (attention to pre- and non-Indo-European elements
in the lexicon). Also cultural role of the Ukrainian etymological lexicography
cannot be denied: the ‘Etymological dictionary of the Ukrainian language’
received world-wide appraisal of the linguists and augmented cultural prestige of
the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian studies.
Key words: Ukrainian lexicography, etymology, etymological dictionary,
etymologically unclear lexicon, vocabulary

A fresh and original translation from Sanskrit of the dashrajnya hymn (hymn 7.18 of Rig Veda) describing this defining battle between Aryan king Sudas and his Aryan as well as non-Aryan foes. The decisive battle led to the uprooting of many tribes from the Sapta Sindhu area.

Many existing beliefs are shown to be merely due to misunderstandings. Further, it is shown that the existing translations fall well short of the true meaning.
For example, no Matsya tribe was involved in this battle.