Circular Migration

The aim of this paper is to consider measures that contribute to the regulation of temporary and circular migration, as well as reintegration in the countries of the Western Balkans, which have long faced numerous and diverse challenges of labor emigration. Immediately after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, a large number of migrant workers returned to the countries of the Western Balkans. Migrant workers, especially those who are staying abroad temporarily, have faced sudden and numerous migration challenges, but they also want to return to work abroad as soon as the conditions are met. Therefore, in order to improve the position and protect the rights of international migrants as efficiently as possible in the future, it is necessary to develop measures that can complement the activities of the Western Balkan countries to regulate and encourage temporary and circular migration, as well as reintegration of migrant workers upon return. This is particularly important in the con...

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused migrant workers worldwide to face numerous and specific challenges. This study aims to determine how the COVID-19 pandemic and its societal impact have influenced temporary and circular migrants from Serbia and North Macedonia. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 50 participants to gain a deeper understanding of their challenges and migration practices. Temporary circular labour migration from Serbia and North Macedonia are most intensive towards EU countries, which are geographically close and wellconnected by traffic, and with which migrants have wellestablished migration ties. The results show that after the outbreak of the pandemic, respondents faced termination of employment contracts, reduced working hours and earnings. Most of the respondents returned and only a few found formal employment in the country of origin. Job-related impacts of COVID-19 on respondents are determined by temporary residence, a form of employment and the employment sector. Temporary and circular migrant workers from Serbia and North Macedonia involved in the essential sectors in EU countries are less likely to be severely affected by the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The results suggest that temporary and circular migration schemes should be improved after the pandemic, in a way that is sustainable even in times of sudden changes. In that regard, in addition to considering the needs of the labour markets of countries of origin and destination, the needs and the rights of migrants, should be prioritized in common solutions.

In the current international context of globalization and widespread economic crisis, the effects of labor migration abroad can shift significantly, particularly from an economic perspective. Studying the multiple causalities of these effects and developing policies not only to prevent potential future phenomena but also to address visible current issues poses a challenge for sociology and existing migration studies. Research on labor migration abroad began by exploring the means of transmitting remittances (money, packages) in general, and social remittances (ideas, behaviors, identities, social capital) in particular, from Spain and Italy to the village of Sperițeni. As the on-the-ground social reality differed from my initial assumptions based on existing data, I had to reanalyze the migration experience of Sperițeni residents through the lens of return migration theories.

Building on the unexpected discovery (serendipity) of this previously unexplored aspect of Romanian labor migration abroad, this study addresses several essential questions that can serve as a starting point for further inquiries and research. These efforts could lay the groundwork for reintegration policies and measures to facilitate the adaptation of returning migrants to their home communities. A community-based approach to this phenomenon aligns precisely with this goal.

Grund für die Attraktivität und Popularität des modernen Fußb alls liegt in seiner bemerkenswerten Schlichtheit. Verfügt er doch gegenüb er vielen ande ren Sportarten üb er den wichtigen Vorteil einer ungemein einfachen Bild sprache. Dem Zuschauer sind daher nahezu alle Szenen des Fußb alls unmit telb ar im Moment der Betrachtung deutlich und verständlich. Es handelt sich ja auch nur um wenige Grundelemente, die der Beob achter zunächst nach vollziehen können muß; denn die Zahl der immer wiederkehrenden b ildlichen Grundmuster des Spiels selb st ist gering. Dazu zählen Torschuß, Eckb all, Kopfb all, Drib b ling, Zweikampf, Grätsche, Foul, Flanke, der kurze Paß. das Stellen einer Freistoßmauer und die Ab wehraktion des Torwarts. Das einzig kompliziert aufzulösende Bild 1 , das b is heute immer wieder Diskussionen auslöst, ist die Ab seitssituation. Im Grundsatz ab er sind dem heutigen Zu schauer, selb st wenn es sich nur um einen kleinen Ausschnitt auf einer Foto grafie handelt, die Bewegungsfiguren des Fußb alls äußerst klar; jede Spielsi tuation erschließt sich sofort. Sogar die nicht direkt zum Spiel gehörenden Bilder der vielen Neb enereignisse einer Fußb allveranstaltung lassen sich für die meisten Zuschauer ohne weiteres decodieren: der Gang der Spieler aufs Feld, der Wink ins Pub likum, das Hinknien fürs Mannschaftsfoto, die Prote ste der Spieler gegen Schiedsrichterentscheidungen, der Torjub el, die Reak tionen der b eteiligten Manager, Trainer und sonstigen Betreuer, schließlich das Stadion und die Zuschauer selbst. Natürlich erscheint eine Betrachtung üb er den Grad der Etab lierung der Bil der des Fußb alls heute als mehr oder weniger b anal. Doch so banal ist es nun auch wieder nicht; denn so selb stverständlich, wie wir heute diesen Bildern b egegnen, so verwundert reagierte die deutsche Öffentlichkeit noch vor etwa 80 bis 100 Jahren auf die Szenen dieses Sports. Den meisten Zuschauern, die Mit ,Bild' sei im folgenden zunächst dasjenige innere Bild gemeint, das sich der Be trachter eines Sachverhalts von diesem qua Wahrnehmung macht.

Circular and return migration are the globally endorsed preferred models for health workforce mobility. Australia is the sole country to date to record emigration as well as immigration flows, including data permitting analysis of migration dynamics and scale in specific vocational fields. Within this context, the prevalence and health workforce impacts of circular and return migration remain largely unknown. This will continue to be the case until more comprehensive migration data capture systems have been introduced, recording immigration, emigration and re-entry data for health professionals in both sending and receiving countries.

The analysis of the problems related to the migration of Romanians presupposes the detailed knowledge of the motivations and characteristics of the migrants, of their circulation, but also of some related data, whose influence on the migration phenomenon can be direct or indirect. Knowing the motivations of Romanians to emigrate, but also the strategies used to leave Romania, can give us an overview of the migration phenomenon, with all the variety it covers. These strategies were adapted according to the period in which they migrated, but also according to the possibilities of each individual. Until 2014, the strategies used were: permanent (stable) migration, circular migration, internal migration, return migration and double migration (remigration). After 2015, a new orientation emerged (multiple migration), determined in particular by the fact that these migrants could not adapt to the places where they resettled. These areas represented either Romania or other places in the countries belonging to the European Union 1. The migratory itinerary and social networks argue the existence of the social capital necessary to obtain the migration project. The migration phenomenon can largely be considered

Main goal is to present three key aspects of the range of issues, related to the return of migrants in Bulgaria: first of all, the theoretical ideas and the methodological
principles of the research and conceptualization of remigration; secondly, the methodology and the findings of the quantitative and qualitative empirical studies of returning migrants in Bulgaria, conducted by the authoring team; thirdly, the principles, contents and challenges before international and national policies on return
and reintegration.

Introduccion:  la permanencia estudiantil es entendida como el escenario que evidencia la decision del universitario de realizar el programa ofrecido por la institucion educativa, y que es favorecida por condiciones institucionales, academicas y socio-ambientales; una permanencia con un sentido, la de realizar un proyecto academico que hace parte del proyecto de vida, una permanencia generadora de bienestar en tanto corresponde al deseo del estudiante. Objetivos:  describir los principales factores motivacionales que influyen en la intencion de cambio de carrera de los estudiantes de Sistemas de Informacion en Salud de la Facultad de Tecnologia de la Salud en el 2019 y proponer medidas para motivar la permanencia de los estudiantes en la carrera.  Metodo:  se realizo una investigacion de tipo descriptiva transversal, durante el periodo de febrero a junio del curso 2018 - 2019. El universo estuvo constituido por los 44 estudiantes del primer ano de la carrera de Sistemas de Informaci...

This book is an authoritative and insightful analysis of migration patterns and trends in sub-Saharan Africa. A key objective of the study is to show how the nature and extent of migration to, and from, African cities responds or adapts particularly to changing economic circumstances. In so doing, the study documents how and why patterns of circular migration between rural and urban areas persist, even when these patterns are not institutionally enforced.

In this study we used the R-ladder to determine the environmental impact reduction for holidays and daily mobility. Six different categories were analysed for holidays, and five trip purposes and two types of vehicle ownership (car and bicycle) for daily mobility. Impacts presented are CO2 emissions, GWP and Land Use. The mobility impacts were described per person per year. For holidays we provided the impacts per holiday trip per person, because holidays have a rather low frequency, which makes per-year values depend heavily on the frequency assumption for each specific type of holiday. We used a mixed methods approach based on detailed annual holiday and mobility statistics, as well as CO2 emission calculations based on emission factors and models from our own experience and the scientific literature. To assess GWP and Land Use, we made use of methods provided by the EAP (Environmental Analysis Program) model. The study showed that only two R-options are applicable to holidays: R0 (avoid) and R2 (reduce). Mobility may benefit additionally from R1 (rethink) and R4 (repair). We assessed the CO2 and GHG emissions and Land Use for six typical 'default trips' varying from a city trip to Berlin to a 22-day tour of Western USA. The carbon footprint of the trips ranged from 269 kg (Berlin city trip) to 2,782 kg (Western USA tour) per person per trip. Only two R-ladder options were identified: R0 (don't consume) and R2 (reduce). R0, stay at home, proved very effective in all default trips and for all three indicators, leading to reductions of between 90% and 96% for CO2 emissions and GWP and reductions of 70 to 76% for Land Use. Reducing by switching to a closer destination or travelling less often but staying longer also turned out to be very effective for CO2 emissions and GWP. For Land Use, in some cases switching transport modes generated a negative impact of up to 24% more land use needed. Changing accommodation and transport modes revealed the largest percentual reduction for short-haul trips, while for long-haul trips such an accommodation shift reduced the total carbon footprint by less than 10%. Some detailed findings are: • The most important determinant for the carbon footprint of holidays is the distance to the destination. High-footprint holidays invariably involve long-haul flights. Such trips can only shift substantially to more environmentally-friendly transport modes when the home-destination distance is reduced to less than some 1,000 km one-way. • Changing transport modes is the second best option to reduce CO2 emissions. For a city trip from Amsterdam to Berlin, changing from car to bus or train provides a more than 40% reduction in emissions for the whole trip (i.e. transport plus accommodation emissions) and a more than 70% reduction in emissions, when only looking at transport emissions. • Travelling less often but staying longer decreases emissions by between 25.5% and 41%. • Staying at home decreases CO2 emissions by between 89% and 96%, depending on the travel distance. While accommodation itself may sometimes have lower emissions than staying at home, the transport makes the difference. • On average, accommodation choice has a smaller impact on CO2 emissions than transport. However, for short-haul trips, accommodation choice becomes more relevant. The tent has the lowest emissions of all accommodation types. • The percentual differences in Global Warming Potential are similar to those in CO2 emissions, because both the default and R-option GWP are calculated with the same constant GWP factor. This is not true when the transport mode is changed from aviation to another mode because aviation has a much higher GWP factor. • For trips of over 3,000 km return distance, the land use of cars, buses and trains becomes much higher than the land use for flights. This is due to the fact that aircraft only need space for take-off and landing at airports and not for the distance in between.

Nowadays, migration is a global phenomenon as interconnectedness among nations is increasing especially among people of developing countries. Migrants are more connected to their origin than before. This opens a way for additional migration. Accordingly, this study had the objective of identifying the causes of migration by order of migrants and understanding how migration affects the conditions of sending community in migration decision-making, taking the case of Angacha Woreda of Kembata Zone. To realize these objectives, data from migrants' households was collected using questionnaires and key informant interviews. The result revealed that the causes of migration depend on the order of migrants. The result from the analysis showed that for the first migrants, the push factors like poverty, shortage of land, and unemployment were the main causes of migration. In contrast, pull factors like the expectation of better life in the destination were the main causes as the order of migrants in the household increased. The result from the qualitative analysis showed migration through remittance has resulted in the perpetuation of migration as it resulted in inequality in income, housing, education, and an increase in the land price. The result suggests interventions that are used to reduce migration, particularly irregular migration need to take into account factors that perpetuate migration. Also, the result further suggests the need for developing strategies that may use the remittance obtained into productive activities that can enhance employment opportunities in the migrant-sending community rather than perpetuating migration.

This paper measures migration flows and determinants in two slum settlements in Nairobi City between 2003 and 2007. The results confirm the high intensity of migration with a quarter of the total slum population and a third of those aged 15-30 being renewed annually. A circular migration system is at play whereby the majority of slum dwellers are short-term migrants spending on average less than 3 years in the area. Migration is more intense during early adulthood (20-24), and despite very similar determinants across gender, mobility is more intense among women compared to men. The increasing feminization of migration is likely to change the face of slum settlements, resulting in more balanced sex ratios, in line with city-wide trends in Nairobi over the past half century. The high population turnover is due to the insecurity of livelihoods, tenure, and poor basic amenities and social services in slum settlements.

Conclusion The trial proved that nifuratel 600 mg/day, minimum recommended daily dosage, is effective as metronidazole 750mg/day, average dosage recommended, in the treatment of trichomoniasis infection and suggests that nifuratel could still be an efficient alternative to metronidazole as first-line treatment. Sexual RelatiOnShip impORtance and cOndOm uSe amOng men attending Std clinicS in twO SOutheRn citieS in the united StateS

Since the economic recession and European Union accession, Croatia has seen a drastic increase in the emigration of tertiary-educated young people seeking further qualification and employment abroad. The brain drain has caused grave concern among political parties across the political spectrum and society as a whole. Recently, however, the tone of discourse has turned from accusations of national ‘disloyalty’ to engagement with how to mitigate the push factors for emigration on the one hand, and how to attract educated and successful migrants back to the country on the other. Changes to the education system are seen by experts and the public alike as one of the key factors in reducing the mismatch of prevailing education and training programmes with the specialist knowledge requirements of the domestic labour market and in improving youth employability. However, efforts to introduce urgently needed education reforms have recently been stalled by a lack of political consensus on aspe...

The term "population migration", descended from the Latin "migratio", etymologically means resettlement, movement. The author of article notes that fact that spontaneous migration negatively affects a social and economic and political situation in the country. She leads to growth of a criminogenic situation in the southern and central regions where the main migratory streams and also to settling of the Far East by migrants from border territories are directed. Migration leads to a situation aggravation in the market of housing, work, to increase in loading at social infrastructure. This situation creates threat of national security of the country.

Poland has a long history of ties to the territories of contemporary Ukraine dating from the fourteenth century, when parts of Ukraine were ruled by the Kingdom of Poland. Before World War II approximately five million Ukrainians lived in Polish territories. By the late 1940s only 200,000 were left, mainly due to the shift of the Eastern border after the war, but also as a result of forced displacement carried out by the Polish military (Motyka 2000; Hałagida 2002). The contemporary flow of migrants from Ukraine to Poland started in the 1990s. As researchers have pointed out, a new, distinct migration space was formed in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) at that time (

The Indian state of Kerala is one of the largest blocs of migrants in the oil economies of the Arab Gulf. Looking closely at the cultural archives produced by and on the Gulf migrants in Malayalam -- the predominant language of Kerala -- this book takes stock of circular migration beyond its economics. It combines formal and thematic analyses of photographs, films, and literature with anthropological and historical details to offer a nuanced understanding of the construction of the Gulf and its translation to the cultural imaginary of Kerala. It explores the dissonance between the private and public discourses on the Gulf among migrants and non-migrants, and demonstrates the role of this disjuncture in the continued fascination for Gulf migrant lives. An enquiry into the various dimensions of the Gulf in Kerala, as an acknowledged means of living, as a rumour, an object of gossip, a public secret, or even a private thrill, this book debunks the idea of language as a common entity and studies the tentative borders built within. Finally, it explores the resources, possibilities, and perils of affiliative communities constructed along and across those borders.

In "The Good Postman," director Tonislav Hristov presents a  portrayal of the refugee crisis unfolding in a small Bulgarian village. This documentary review critically examines Hristov's narrative approach, highlighting the dangers of romanticizing refugees while absolving states of their responsibility.

un incremento en el volumen de migrantes mexicanos formados en estas áreas del conocimiento, debido a motivaciones relacionadas con la búsqueda de trabajo, la formación profesional y las razones familiares, así como a la existencia de una creciente demanda de mano de obra calificada en las empresas estadounidenses inmersas en la economía del conocimiento. Sin embargo no están exentos de desempleo, subempleo y subutilización de capacidades.

This study contributes to the 'unwritten chapter' in migration studies, namely transnational return migration, with specific reference to Tongan migrants who have voluntarily returned to live in Tonga. Return migration of transnational Tongans is not 'permanent' as their mobility pre and post-return is characterised by circulation or repeated return rather than staying at 'home'.

The METOIKOS project looks at circular migration patterns in three European regions: southeastern Europe and the Balkans (Greece, Italy and Albania); southwestern Europe and the Maghreb (Spain, Italy and Morocco); and Central Eastern Europe (Poland, Hungary, and Ukraine). More specifically, METOIKOS studies the links between different types of circular migration and processes of integration (in the country of destination) and reintegration (in the source country). It identifies the main challenges and opportunities involved in circular migration for source countries, destination countries and migrants (and their families) and develops new conceptual instruments for the analysis of circular migration and integration. The project will develop policy recommendations (a Guide for Policy Makers, available in 10 European languages) for local, regional and national policy makers as to how to frame circular migration with appropriate (re-)integration policies. It will also organise three Re...

We investigate the importance of geographical proximity between Greece and Albania for the migrating experience of Albanian immigrants who work in the Greek countryside. From the fieldwork research we conducted in the countryside of northern Greece we find that the geographical proximity between Greece and Albania (the fact that they are bordering countries) and the inherent seasonality of agricultural employment allow immigrants to make rapid and repeated moves between the two countries and also work on a seasonal basis on their family agricultural holdings for the few months when they return home. Hence, these features embody a range of employment options that give these immigrants the opportunity to work on both sides of the border, transferring resources and skills acquired in Greece to Albania. As a result, a considerable proportion of immigrants working in agriculture actually work in both countries, and their annual employment and attempts at upward economic mobility are geographically dispersed in the two countries.

L'article montre que dans le domaine de la migration internationale la migration circulaire ne renvoie pas à une réalité nouvelle ni particulière. Elle représente plutôt une piste de solution pour la régulation des flux migratoires irréguliers. Si le concept en soi n'est pas nouveau, il demeure relativement flou. L'article se penche de manière critique sur sa conception et sa mise en oeuvre étatique récemment introduite au Mali et qui présente des avantages, mais aussi de nombreuses faiblesses du point de vue de l'Etat de droit. Il donne une vue d'ensemble des expériences étatiques en cours et se termine avec quelques recommandations susceptibles de contribuer à une maîtrise durable des flux migratoires.

The state policy is a derivative of many factors, both internal and external. It is implemented through appropriate activities in various fields of its functioning. From 2015, there has been a revival of the debate over migration issues that are the result of the humanitarian crisis that Europe has been struggling with. According to data from the International Organization for Migration, the number of people seeking a refuge or a better life in Europe has increased fourfold in one year. This situation has forced action by the European Union and individual states aimed at limiting the scale of illegal immigration. The aim of the article is to analyze Poland’s migration policy in the context of actions taken by EU institutions. The first part of the work contains theoretical considerations regarding migration policy. In the second one, the author presented attempts to solve the migration crisis by the European Union together with the attitudes of Polish governments towards immigrants ...

is a unique forum where the governments of 30 democracies work together to address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to coordinate domestic and international policies.

is a unique forum where the governments of 30 democracies work together to address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to coordinate domestic and international policies.

Podstawy traktatowe polityki imigracyjnej Unii Europejskiej Treaty bases of the immigration policy of the European Communities Artykuł przedstawia proces uwspólnotowienia polityki imigracyjnej począwszy od Traktatów ustanawiających Wspólnoty Europejskie (EWWiS, EWG i EWEA) przez kolejne Traktaty rewizyjne: Jednolity Akt Europejski, Traktat w Maastricht, Traktat z Amsterdamu, Traktat z Nicei i Traktat z Lizbony. Analiza tych Traktatów potwierdziła, że polityka imigracyjna z realizowanej w drodze współpracy międzyrządowej przeistoczyła się stopniowo w ścisłą i szeroką współpracę unijną. Instytucje unijne uzyskały szeroki zakres kompetencji w obszarze wspólnej polityki imigracyjnej oraz znaczny margines swobody jej kształtowania. Koreluje to z osłabieniem pozycji państw członkowskich jako "kreatorów" polityki imigracyjnej. Słowa kluczowe: wspólna polityka imigracyjna, kompetencje instytucji unijnych i państw członkowskich.

The article shall discuss the provisions of the Directive 2014/36/EU, which governs both immigration law and labour law issues related to seasonal work that is performed by unskilled and low-skilled migrant workers. These issues have been regulated in order to ensure legal certainty when employing migrant workers and developing circular migration programs in the EU, as well as to prevent the labour exploitation of these persons. The article starts by defining seasonal jobs, pointing out their characteristics and goes on to critically review the legal grounds for their performance, since, in most European countries, they carry the risk of having indecent working conditions. The author then identifies the major challenges to the implementation of the principle of equality in terms of employment and working conditions for seasonal migrant workers, and analyses the availability of (effective) judicial and other legal remedies, as well as (effective, proportionate and dissuasive) sanctions for violations of the labour rights of seasonal workers. The aforementioned issues have also been analysed from the point of view of regulating seasonal work in the Republic of Serbia, as we have seen efforts, in recent years, to further simplify employment of (domestic and foreign) seasonal workers, unfortunately, without considering the need of this sensitive group of workers for special protection.

The Covid-19 pandemic created economic turmoil and impacted various areas of life all over the world. One of the major socio-political aspects of this global crisis consisted of border closures and lockdowns imposed by governments. Migrant workers have been one of the most affected groups, because they are over-represented in vulnerable occupations and among workers with short-term labour contracts; hence, they are among the first to be laid off (Ullah et al., 2021). The loss of jobs and reductions in the wages of migrant and refugee workers as a result of the pandemic led to a decline in remittances globally of some USD$109 billion. Dependent for years now on the financial capital coming from diverse types of migration-seasonal migration, circular mobility and remittances from international migrationthe economy of Albania was negatively impacted by the consequences of these changes (OECD, 2021). Many migrant workers had to return to their country of origin and face the precarious situation from which they had already left (Bartlett & Oruc, 2021). A lot of seasonal and circular migrant workers were trapped and could not emigrate. Outward mobility shrank or was postponed because of travel bans (Mara et al., 2022). The more significant consequences were experienced by seasonal migrants who are used to generating incomes through temporary work and who were unable to continue doing so due to being stuck in Albania. The labour

Spain's berry industry relies on the agricultural labour of both local and seasonal migrant workers. A significant part of this migrant workforce comprises Moroccan mothers who leave their children with relatives in order to perform this wage labour. The bilateral recruitment regime favours the employment of Moroccan women with children for this labour to ensure that workers return home at the end of the harvesting season. Drawing on multi-site ethnographic research in Spain and Morocco, this study revealed the effects of this bilateral labour regime on the intimate lives of migrant workers. We argue that the geopolitical prescriptions of this labour migration regime, along with the working and living conditions of migrant workers in Huelva, result in experiences of intimate liminality. We examined these experiences by exploring: (1) how the role of female workers as mothers becomes liminal as transnational labour agreements marginalise and outsource care obligations, (2) how governmental neglect of migrant workers' occupational health exposes them to reproductive health risks and (3) how this neglect places them in a liminal space in terms of access to healthcare, and (4) how, despite their liminality, migrant workers contest precarious conditions through everyday solidarity practices. We advance a feminist approach to liminality, emphasising the importance of an embodied, intersectional, and multiscalar perspective.

This article sheds light on the unintended consequences of temporary migration from Poland by combining Merton's functional analysis with Levitt's work on social remittances. In addition to economic remittances, Polish migrants have been bringing norms, values, practices and social capital to their communities of origin since the end of the nineteenth century. The article presents a juxtaposition of the non-material effects of earlier migration from Poland, dating from the turn of the twentieth century, with those of the contemporary era of migration from Poland since the 1990s. The analysis shows that some aspects, such as negotiating gender roles, the changing division of household labour, individualistic lifestyles, new skills and sources of social capital, and changing economic rationalities are constantly being transferred by migrants from destination to origin communities. Contemporary digital tools facilitate these transfers and contribute to changing norms and practices in Polish society. The article demonstrates that migration fulfils specific functions for particular sections of Polish society by replacing some functions of the communist state (e.g., cash assistance and loans from communist factories, factory and post-coop cultures) and by facilitating their adaptation to changing conditions (e.g., changing gender relations, new models of family, job aspirations and social mobility).

Lebenssicherung, Informalität und Flucht Soziale Sicherung und soziale Netzwerke in Damaskus. Eine Vergleichsstudie über soziale Sicherungssysteme in Damaskus vor und während des Krieges 2011 Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Naturwissenschaften am Fachbereich Geowissenschaften der Freien Universität Berlin vorgelegt von

Migrations, transfers and population changes have taken place between states from Balkans and Anatolian area in the first half of the twentieth century. This process had as a result the appearance of new ethnicities having the place of origin as a central identity marker. Although under a general theory, each case must (also) be treated in its specific. The present paper approaches the case of Arvanites from Tyhero, Greece, a village near the river Evros, the border with Turkey. The conclusion is that their identity in relation to a place of origin, situated not far away beyond Evros, is retreating in the face of an identity connected to the entire region of Thrace.

Immigration into Europe has always been at the center of EU's agenda. With the candidacy of Turkey for entry into the EU, the issue of immigration is being discussed with a new intensity. That is why this paper aims to understand the dynamics that will govern Turkish migration into EU after membership and to provide a sound basis for its complicated nature. In order to do that, different theories of migration have been categorized at different levels of approaches and analyzed to understand the reasons for migration. To ground these theories in the reality of migration, the statistics on countries that joined the EU in 2004 and 2007 have been used. After identifying the reasons why citizens of these new member states migrate, prospective Turkish migration has been analyzed accordingly. It has been found out that the reasons for Turkish migration will be mostly the same as those for new member states' citizens. As a result of this, it has been concluded that the prospective Turkish migration will be extremely diverse and complicated and that the directions of migration will not only be from Turkey to Europe but also from Europe to Turkey.