Christian Theatre

Little over 400 years ago, Europe saw the outbreak of one of the most extensive, bloody and destructive wars in its entire history, involving all the major European powers. This war¾the so-called Thirty Years' War¾famously began with the Protestant rebellion against the Catholic German-Roman Emperor in Prague, May 1618, but not all its participants were driven by holy fury. Many used the situation to pursue worldly (political, economic) interests, and below the surface of the religious war there was a complex undergrowth of secular conflicts including rifts over commerce and territory, succesion rivalries, and other types of political power struggles.

With an eye towards Zion Royal Theatre and Free Gift International, this study presents a comparison of operational management techniques in Christian theatrical production. Using a case approach, this study looks at how these companies deliberately use creative talent and resources to reach operational effectiveness. It highlights how these elements affect organisational performance by means of common difficulties faced by various theatre ministries and by means of an analysis of their management approaches, leadership styles, and audience involvement tactics. The study uses a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative data collecting. Semi-structured interviews with three important stakeholders in every company yield qualitative data that offer in-depth operational dynamic insights. By means of stratified random sampling of 100 audience members each company using survey questionnaires, quantitative data are gathered, therefore providing a larger viewpoint on audience impressions. Organisational Effectiveness Theory (OET) and the Resource-Based View (RBV) provide the foundation of the study, therefore guaranteeing a strong theoretical framework. Results show that although both companies give audience involvement, spiritual messaging, and resource use top priority, their structure organisation and leadership style match their particular operating environments. Providing useful insights for Christian theatre practitioners, the study contributes to the body of knowledge on organisational success and resource management in the creative sectors. It finishes with recommendations to better financial planning, optimize human resource allocation, integrate innovative technologies, expand marketing channels, and strengthen community engagement. These ideas are presented as approaches to improve operational management, ensuring cultural, religious, and social relevance, and establishing sustainability in Christian theatre.

Culture is a vehicle for communication. Language, symbols and beliefs or religion being intrinsic elements of culture can greatly contribute to the effective communication and understanding of a dramatic message. Samuel Obikoya's "Àìkú" reimagines the biblical story of creation and humanity's fall through the lens of Christian theology and Yoruba cosmology, blending allegorical depth with rich spiritual and cultural aesthetics. This study examines the subtleties, subtext, and layers of meaning within Àìkú, analyzing how Obikoya employs symbolism, oral traditions, and allegory to convey complex themes such as divine justice, free will, and the consequences of disobedience. Using a qualitative approach, the research employs textual analysis to uncover the intricate ways the play engages with Yoruba cultural narratives and Christian theology. The study is grounded in key theoretical frameworks, including cultural studies, Yoruba dramaturgy, and theological allegory. It also employs intertextuality to explore how Àìkú interacts with its biblical sources and situates itself within Nigerian drama's broader context of moral and philosophical inquiry. The analysis reveals that Àìkú not only addresses universal human struggles but also serves as a cultural artifact that preserves and celebrates Yoruba traditions while negotiating spiritual values. This research contributes to the growing body of scholarship on Nigerian literature by demonstrating how African drama can contribute to culture preservation and as a medium for examining timeless questions of spirituality, morality, leadership, and accountability. Through its exploration of Àìkú, the study highlights the enduring relevance of African dramatic traditions in addressing contemporary issues and fostering intercultural dialogue.

Sequel to the outlaw of theatre from the church in the Medieval era, Christian theatre moved from the church to the trade guilds and even beyond but never ended. In Nigeria, the same cycle had been repeated following the introduction of Christian theatre into the church through the window of the Church Missionary Society, followed by early dramatists such as Hubert Ogunde, who temporarily succeeded to infuse theatre into Cantatas but soon deviated from the church centred themes and secularised Christian theatre. Hence, the emergence of Mike Bamiloye and his others in the later parts of the 20 th century with Christian theatrical productions which toured around the country under the umbrella of the Mount Zion Faith Ministries (MZFM) which would soon become the household name for Christian theatre and film productions in Nigeria. Although the MZFM diverted into film a few years later, the 21 st century saw the inauguration of her Christian theatre arm named Zion Royal Theatre (ZRT) targeted at churning out phenomenal Christian theatrical productions on the contemporary stage. This is a descriptive study which chronicles the events leading to the emergence and progressive practice of Christian theatre in Nigeria by the ZRT. It identifies the point of departure from the old and the styles of practice for the new. In-depth interviews were conducted with stakeholders in Christian theatre practice in Nigeria coupled with other secondary sources to enhance the literature review. ZRT proves to draw a viable connection to the rebirth of regular Christian theatre in Nigeria with regards to Christian themes, techniques and method of dramatising biblical stories to contemporary audiences.

Effective communication in today's contemporary world is a herculean task as audiences have transitioned beyond the traditional means of accepting information through verbal and non-verbal communication to the level of aesthetic communication. The bible for one, is a phenomenal religious book that contains sacred truths and deep meanings capable of yielding its readers to repentance and salvation. However, contemporary society has become excessively familiar with the wordings of the scriptures, and they hardly generate new meaning or understanding from the written words or spoken texts. For some others, the scripture is a compilation of esoteric messages that must be expounded into simpler contexts. Hence, in the similitude of the medieval era, dramatists have sought to dramatize the scriptures into pictures and audio-visuals using the channels of adaptation to aesthetically present the gospel message without watering down its essence and sacred meaning to ensure effective communication and understanding of the scriptures. This study engages Ole Thyssen’s theory of aesthetic communication as a theoretical framework which identifies aesthetics as a quintessential factor in communication with contemporary audiences. It explores the channels of adapting scriptures for today's audiences. Thus, the study recommends that aesthetics should be prioritized for biblical messages to be communicated effectively to contemporary audiences. Hence, it proposes adapting biblical stories into cultural contexts or theatrical modernization to fit into the culture or mindset of the receiving audience and enhance interpretation.

Sequel to the outlaw of theatre from the church in the Medieval era, Christian theatre moved from the church to the trade guilds and even beyond but never ended. In Nigeria, the same cycle had been repeated following the introduction of Christian theatre into the church through the window of the Church Missionary Society, followed by early dramatists such as Hubert Ogunde, who temporarily succeeded to infuse theatre into Cantatas but soon deviated from the church centred themes and secularised Christian theatre. Hence, the emergence of Mike Bamiloye and his others in the later parts of the 20 th century with Christian theatrical productions which toured around the country under the umbrella of the Mount Zion Faith Ministries (MZFM) which would soon become the household name for Christian theatre and film productions in Nigeria. Although the MZFM diverted into film a few years later, the 21 st century saw the inauguration of her Christian theatre arm named Zion Royal Theatre (ZRT) targeted at churning out phenomenal Christian theatrical productions on the contemporary stage. This is a descriptive study which chronicles the events leading to the emergence and progressive practice of Christian theatre in Nigeria by the ZRT. It identifies the point of departure from the old and the styles of practice for the new. In-depth interviews were conducted with stakeholders in Christian theatre practice in Nigeria coupled with other secondary sources to enhance the literature review. ZRT proves to draw a viable connection to the rebirth of regular Christian theatre in Nigeria with regards to Christian themes, techniques and method of dramatising biblical stories to contemporary audiences.

The wide spread of media-technologies has demanded a change in the modus operandi of human and business operations in the contemporary world. By implication, theatre practice today has gone beyond mere interpretation of the dramatic text to create performances with a contemporary feel. For the theatre, indeed Christian theatre, this proliferation has necessitated a modification in the process of creating and delivering the live performance. Sight and Sound theatres, USA, a
leading light for Christian theatre productions in the United States has provided a template for contemporary performances by introducing technical elements into performance of bible stories on stage. However, there is a lack of documentation on the technical elements used by Sight and Sound theatres in the creation of their remarkable productions which have constantly commanded audience attention and patronage. The study engages Hans-Thies Lehmann’s ‘Postdramatic theatre’ and Ole Thyssen’s ‘Aesthetic communication theory’ as theoretical framework. It engages
the mixed method of data gathering and a content analysis of the performances of Joseph (2010) and Noah (2008). It documents the technical details of theatrical productions at Sight and Sound theatres by examining the elements embedded in the production of the performances understudy. Observably, Sight and Sound Theatres, prioritizes the inclusion of technical elements into performance to enhance performance quality and ensure effective communication of the dramatic story. Hence, by documenting these elements, Sight and Sound theatres provide a template for the creation of performance in contemporary times, and most especially Christian theatrical productions around the globe.

Biblical prophets have served a pivotal function in the process of communicating God’s divine messages to others to whom the messages are intended using various methods. Significantly, these prophets have had to live as dramatists who spontaneously act as symbols according to the script of an ultimate symbolist to present a dramatic enactment of divine messages with their lives before the prying eyes of a spectating audience. This study engages Maurice Maeterlinck’s ‘Emotional Symbolism’ as a theoretical framework. It examines prophets in the bible and the instances where they served as symbols in the hands of God while communicating God’s messages. This study examines the symbolisation of Prophets Ezekiel, Agabus, Hosea and Zechariah; significant samples, who functioned as symbols and actors while dramatising divine messages under God’s divine direction and supervision. It identifies the supremacy of God in using his prophets as symbols, especially in ways that look dramatic to ensure effective communication of the intended
message. It also highlights how the prophets understudy functioned as symbols by tracing the divine instructions they were acting which forms the basis for the script, the entire story and their symbolisation as directed by the ultimate symbolist. Therefore, this study documents the laudable acts of biblical prophets as they offered themselves as actors, who functioned as symbols under the direction of the divine symbolist in the process of conveying divine messages and announcing the need for redemption to capture the attention of the audience to generate an emotional but effective response.

This study investigates the relationship between Old Testament prophecies and their fulfillment in the life, ministry, and crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Anchored on the theoretical framework of biblical theology, particularly influenced by the work of Geerhardus Vos, the research meticulously examines how specific prophetic scripts find precise realization in various events surrounding Jesus. It explores Vos' emphasis on tracing overarching themes and motifs to illuminate the interconnectedness of Old Testament prophecy and New Testament fulfillment, shedding light on the unity and coherence of Scripture. Through indepth analysis, the study reveals how Jesus embodies the fulfillment of divine promises, validating his identity as the long-awaited Messiah. Contributing to the ongoing dialogue surrounding the nature of Jesus's earthly ministry, this research provides valuable insights into the theological implications of prophecy fulfillment. By showcasing the seamless connection between prophecy and fulfillment, it underscores the power of prophecy in affirming Jesus' divine mission. Moreover, the study enriches theological discourse by offering a deeper understanding of God's providence, the significance of Jesus' role in salvation history, and its implications for faith, theology, and spiritual growth. It invites scholars, theologians, and believers alike to engage with the profound implications of prophecy fulfillment, fostering a deeper appreciation for the divine orchestration of events surrounding Jesus' life and ministry.

The proliferation of media technologies has redefined theatre performance in contemporary times. This modification which includes mixed-media and mediatization; interactive media; social media; aesthetic communication and spectacle have resulted in a high level of change. As audiences visit the theatre with an increased level of aesthetic taste and newer lens to view performance, theatre directors and designers struggle to find newer methods to tell the dramatic story and create performances to meet the high demand. Sadly, for Christian theatres, especially in Nigeria, the handful of theatre directors and designers actually embracing these new developments have barely scratched the surface of the ongoing renaissance in theatre performance. And this is due to a dearth of documentation on the modus operandi necessary for the creation of these contemporary Christian theatre performances. Sight & Sound Theatres (USA), is a faith-based Christian Theatre in the league of Broadway Theatre with several biblical stories presented on sophisticated stages. This paper engages Ole Thyssen's 'Aesthetic Communication theory' as theoretical framework. It is a descriptive study which engages a content analysis of Sight & Sound's performance of "Joseph", and documents the technical details of creating contemporary Christian performances with the example of "Joseph". Observably, Sight & Sound Theatres prioritizes the inclusion of media and technical elements into performance to enhance performance quality and ensure effective communication of the dramatic story. Hence, by documenting these elements, Sight & Sound Theatres provide a template for the creation of performance in contemporary times, indeed, Christian theatrical productions around the globe.

Pierwsza wersja w druku: M. Klinger Wystąpienie na 40 – lecie „Gardzienic” w: KONTEKSTY (Polska Sztuka Ludowa t. LXXII) Nr 1-2 /2018 (320-321), Instytut Sztuki PAN Warszawa 2018, s. 298-9.
Stawiam znów pytanie o dostępne dziś ślady misterium.

What a great privilege to volunteer the supervisory editorial role for the packaging of the book, The Margaret Idahosa We know: Reflections on the Man Called Mama @ 80! After the wonderful editorial experience I had, five years ago, in putting together the phenomenal publication The Idahosa We Know, it was not a big hurdle in accepting this volunteer assignment. Going through the reflections of more than 50 eminent personalities across the globe on Mama Idahosa has been another learning process for me.

This Book, CHRISTIAN DRAMA AND APPLICATIONS OF BIBLICAL DOCTRINES has dissected the Biblical Doctrines as they apply to the Drama Ministry. The Book paints the pictures of the Christian Drama as a tool derived from the Doctrine of The Holy Bible to bring more illumination into the darkened hearts of sinful men and revival to the Body of Christ. 
    This book is not just for the Drama Ministry and Drama Ministers; but for everyone in the household of Faith who desires to be used in these last days.
    This book explains the place of the Roles and Power of the Holy Spirit in Drama Ministry. In addition, the Book also examines the Ministerial Applications of the Gifts of the Holy Spirit.
    This book is a complete academic and spiritual package comprising five different sections. Each of the sections is garnished with different Spirit-filled topics. It is not possible to read this book and remain the same ministerially and in other areas. As an academic compendium, this book is meant to validate the truism of drama ministrations as God's Word. Some lessons studied in seminaries are now available for drama ministers who come in through the Mount Zion Institute of Christian Drama.

H «Εξαγωγή» του Εβραίου τραγωδού της ελληνιστικής εποχής, Εζεκιήλου, συνιστά έργο με σημαντικό αντίκτυπο, λόγω του μονοθεϊστικού του θέματος. Με χρονολόγηση προ του 35 π.Χ., φέρει σημαντικές επιρροές από το θέατρο της κλασικής αρχαιότητας, χωρίς να αποτελεί αναβίωση της Αττικής τραγωδίας. Αντιθέτως, εισάγει νέα στοιχεία, τα οποία θα χαρακτηρίσουν τη δραματουργία των επόμενων αιώνων και, τελικά, θα οδηγήσουν τον Κάρλ Κρουμβάχερ να χαρακτηρίσει την "Εξαγωγή", "πρόδρομο του χριστιανικών δραμάτων".

H «Εξαγωγή» του Εβραίου τραγωδού της ελληνιστικής εποχής, Εζεκιήλου, συνιστά έργο με σημαντικό αντίκτυπο, λόγω του μονοθεϊστικού του θέματος. Με χρονολόγηση προ του 35 π.Χ., φέρει σημαντικές επιρροές από το θέατρο της κλασικής αρχαιότητας, χωρίς να αποτελεί αναβίωση της Αττικής τραγωδίας. Αντιθέτως, εισάγει νέα στοιχεία, τα οποία θα χαρακτηρίσουν τη δραματουργία των επόμενων αιώνων και, τελικά, θα οδηγήσουν τον Κάρλ Κρουμβάχερ να χαρακτηρίσει την "Εξαγωγή", "πρόδρομο του χριστιανικών δραμάτων".

Alicja MullerFaculty of Polish Jagiellonian UniversityPoland(Un)spectacular Bodies (Do Not) Go to War Uniforms and DisciplineAbstract: The aim of this article is to present uniforms (or costumes) as masks used by the disciplinary authority to control and change bodies. By the word “costume” I understand both the material object and a repertoire of abstract rules according to which bodies are formed and trained. Defined in this way, the mask is a medium which, on the one hand, covers the individual characteristics of whoever wears it, and, on the other, somehow directs his or hers actions. To describe this mechanism, I choose two seemingly different spaces: classic ballet and the military. I show that in both disciplinary power operates on similar – perhaps even identical – principles. In the first part of the article, I develop the concept of mask-costume, focusing on its theatrical character. In the second part, I study two texts of culture: Cezary Tomaszewski’s play Cezary goes to...

Il manoscritto assisiate 705, detto anche “Illuminati”, è noto per essere l’unico testimone conosciuto del laudario dei Disciplini di Santo Stefano; come laudario è stato molto studiato e recentemente edito . Il repertorio laudistico, però, riguarda solo i primi due dei quattro fascicoli che compongono il codice: terzo e quarto fascicolo contengono alcuni testi in latino relativi agli uffici che la fraglia era tenuta a celebrare, completati da due gruppi di lectiones – anch’esse in latino – che, a seconda del tempo liturgico, andavano recitate . Del primo gruppo di lectiones diede conto Angela Terruggia, notando che il loro testo altro non è se non un lungo e articolato pianto della Vergine che doveva essere ben noto ad Assisi, poiché un secondo manoscritto appartenuto alla Biblioteca del Sacro Convento ne riporta una redazione quasi identica, ma con diverso incipit . Franco Mancini ritornò sul testo delle lectiones, sostenendo che derivasse da un pianto mediano latino, successivamente inserito nel rituale della disciplina e, poi, divenuto la matrice di alcune lamentationes volgari . Ben conoscendo il ruolo dirimente delle sequenze di planctus nella nascita e nello sviluppo di quel “teatro della misericordia” che ebbe proprio nelle pratiche dei laici un elemento dirimente e imprescindibile , entrambi gli studiosi avevano colto l’importanza del testo conservato nei codici assisiati e della sua recita all’interno delle cerimonie confraternali. Ciononostante, questo singolare lamento della madre è stato oggetto solo marginale degli studi storico-letterari , venendo ignorato, invece, da quelli teatrologici o interessati alle devozioni drammatiche dell’Occidente medievale . Recenti contributi filologici, insieme a una più ampia mappatura delle fonti e a una loro lettura sullo sfondo del cambiamento drammatico che caratterizzò la spiritualità duecentesca ci consentono ora di far maggiore luce attorno al planctus “Illuminati” e alla sua originale struttura drammaturgica. Il presente contributo è articolato in due parti: nella prima si darà un elenco dei testimoni del testo a oggi noti, cercando di collocare ciascuna fonte entro il contesto spirituale cui appartenne. Nella seconda parte, invece, si mostrerà come questo planctus rivesta un’importanza centrale per la drammaturgia passionista in Europa e particolarmente in Italia.

przypomnienie 3 rodzajów lit. , cechy dramatu jako rodzaju lit. TRAGEDIA : Wywodzi się z obrzędów rel.-Małe i Wielkie Dionizje (6 dni F 0 E 0 1-obrzędy kultowe, 2-konkursy melorecytacji dytyrambicznych, 3-konkurs komedii, 4,5,6-tragedia; 5 sędziów – nagrody; konkurs=agon) w Atenach – VIIIw pne (bóg wina i życiodajnych sił natury) Strojne pochody wieśniaków połączone ze śpiewaniem dytyrambów – pieśni kultowych ku czci boga. Śpiewacy przebierali się w skóry zwierzęce, by upodobnić się do orszaku boga-w koźle skóry-Satyrowie Gr. tragos = kozioł , ode = pieśń , więc tragedia = pieśń kozła. Tragedia wywodzi się z obrzędów kultowych. Początek tragedii jako gat. dramatycznego-ok. VII-VI w pne.(poeta Arion wprowadził postaci Satyrów mówiących wierszem) – występ mimetycznego chóru (F 0 E 0 naśladujący i obrazujący plastyką ruchów treść śpiewanych pieśni) Zwykle były to inscenizacje znanych mitów Z czasem chór Satyrów zastąpiono innymi postaciami – w roku 534 pne poeta wiejski Tespis (na zam. Pizystrata) – ze śpiewającego chóru wyodrębnia przewodnika czyli koryfeusza (odpowiadacza) F 0 E 0

OUTCASTS IN THEATRE

The paper provides a brief historical survey of the complex presence of the outcasts in theatre. If offers a series of selected case studies from ancient Greek tragedy (aulete, chorus, Cassandra, Io, Ajax and Philoctetes), medieval theatre (Jesus and Mary Magdalene as characters in the performances), Elizabethan theatre (boy-actors), butoh (Tatsumi Hijikata), Polish theatre of the Holocaust (Akropolis by Jerzy Grotowski and Dead Class by Tadeusz Kantor) and the theatre of the oppressed by Augusto Boal.

Preamble: Professor Ediriweera Sarachchandra's play 'Sinhabahu' was staged for the first time at the open air theatre of the Peradeniya University at Peradeniya in Sri Lanka (then known abroad as 'Ceylon') in September 1961. Like his 1956 masterpiece 'Maname', which he described as the final product of a research he had carried out to discover a mode of drama most appropriate for the aesthetic sensibility of the Lankan playgoers, this his next play was the outcome of serious scholarship and professionalism. Both plays reflect his deep familiarity with Eastern (Chinese, Indian, and Japanese) and Western (Classical Greek, English, French, Norwegian, Russian, etc) dramatic traditions. Even in 1956 he was not new to the drama field. He had written and produced plays such as 'Pabavati' and 'Kapuwa Kapoti' since the mid-forties. His search for a suitable dramatic style was for him a cogent one, for he often lamented the fact that the Sinhalese possess no heritage of a dramatic art that is comparable to their prose and verse literature. In his search around the country, he came across nothing more than some rudimentary forms of folk drama such as kolam (a form of play in which portrayal of character overshadows narration) and sokari (a kind of masque performed by an exclusively male cast) He wanted to develop a form of drama with indigenous roots. He thought that the Western naturalistic model was not suitable for Sri Lankan audiences. 'Maname' and 'Sinhabahu', both products of his long search for a national drama form, exemplify an original though significantly eclectic dramatic model based on the local tradition such as it was, enriched with appropriate elements suggestive of the influence of both Eastern and Western styles of stagecraft. He adopted the nadagama tradition, which itself had had its beginnings only in the early nineteenth century, in producing these plays. Sarachchandra chose the nadagama tradition because he thought that it represented a complete theatrical style. Traditionally, the Maname story had been dramatized in the Sinhalese kolam style. Sarachchandra's play was the first instance it was made into a drama in the nadagama tradition. For 'Maname' as well as 'Sinhabahu', he turned to local literary and historical sources to borrow his subject matter.

Vesti la giubba... czyli schematy i maski commedii dell'arte w operze werystycznej na przykładzie Pajaców Ruggera Leoncavalla Vesti la giubba, e la faccia infarina. La gente paga, e rider vuole qua. E se Arlecchin t'invola Colombina, ridi, Pagliaccio, e ognun applaudirà! Tramuta in lazzi lo spasmo ed il pianto in una smorfia il singhiozzo e 'l dolor. Ah! Ridi, Pagliaccio, del tuo amore infranto! Ridi del duol, che t'avvelena il cor! Commedia dell'arte -czym tak naprawdę była? Commedia dell'arte traktowana była niegdyś bądź jak "kategoria", która, w opozycji do historii rozwoju współczesnego teatru, reprezentuje pierwotne jego idee, bądź też jak monolityczny blok, który, w niewyjaśniony sposób, przez okres ponad dwóch wieków konserwował w niezmienionej formie charakterystyczne dla siebie postacie i cechy. Inni badacze uważali ją za przykład istnienia form przedstawienia ludowego, przeciwstawiających się życiu kulturalnemu dominujących klas. Dziś natomiast, analizując różne punkty widzenia, uważa się, że fenomen commedii dell'arte polega na zachowaniu się rdzennie ludowych form w gatunku, który jednak z gminnym teatrzykiem niewiele miał wspólnego 1 . Opierał się, jak wiadomo, na improwizacji -nie była to jednak bezmyślna farsa, jak się czasem sądzi. Wprawdzie commedia dell'arte nie bazowała na dramacie jako takim, istniał natomiast scenario. Nie było w 1 F. Taviani, La commedia dell'arte..., Roma 1970., wstęp.

Philosophical interpretations of La vida es sueño have long since identified the elements of Platonic epistemology in Calderón’s play, and although some of these elements — such as Segismundo’s alleged spiritual awakening through the contemplation of Rosaura’s beauty — may in fact be more Neoplatonic than Platonic, there can, at least, be little doubt of the relevance of philosophical interpretations. In the present essay, however, I suggest a reevaluation of Calderón’s Platonic heritage, which focuses less on epistemology and more on ethics. After all, at the heart of La vida es sueño’s central inquiry into the problems of freedom and choice there lies a profound ethical preoccupation with the idea of justice, which is not only the main subject of Plato’s Republic, but a central element of Socratic ethos and, hence, of Plato’s entire philosophical project. The philosophical interpretations of Calderón’s play generally remain speculative rather than hermeneutic, neglecting the concrete comparison between the play and its Platonic sources. This way of proceeding, which appears to be the result of the view of Platonism as a body of ideas rather than as a concrete corpus of literary-philosophical dialogues, not only seems quite unsustainable from a scientific point of view. More importantly, it ignores the seminal Platonic relation of aesthetic criticism and ethics, which Calderón, as we shall see, adopted and developed in his most famous play. In La vida es sueño the dramatist conducts a subtle investigation into the relation between tragedy as an aesthetic form and what may be termed the ‘tragic worldview’ or the ‘philosophy of the tragic’, subjecting the latter to a Platonic scrutiny and transfiguring the former into a Baroque comedia. From Aischylos to Shakespeare and beyond, dramatists have of course inquired into the problem of eudaimonia, human happiness, often with an eye to greater metaphysical questions. However, the Spanish Golden Age drama is particularly interesting in this respect. Not only was the period for obvious historical reasons — national bankruptcy, imperial decadence, the Thirty Years’ War, internal upheavals — characterized by a profound feeling of the fragility of human happiness. The Baroque witnessed a quite astonishing ‘ostracism’ of the term ‘tragedy’ from the aesthetic vocabulary and the peculiar triumph of comedia as the common denominator of the serious drama, which a reconsideration of Calderón’s La vida es sueño in the light of the Platonic critique of tragedy may help illuminate. Although no modern critics have taken up the challenge of tracing the influence of Plato’s critique of tragedy on the Spanish comedia, it is certainly worth the effort. In the present essay we shall begin by considering the different philosophical and aesthetic elements of this critique and subsequently move on to a close examination of its resonance in La vida es sueño, arguing that the play’s investigation of the problems of freedom and choice is largely conducted on the background of a critique of tragic fatalism, which finds its emblematic expression in the transfiguration of Sophocles’ famous Oedipus Tyrannos into an ‘Oedipus moralizatus’, ‘Oedipus christianus’, or ‘Oedipus platonicus’. However, we shall also see how La vida es sueño reiteratedly ponders the complexity of this both philosophical and aesthetic transcendence of tragedy. Even if Calderón ultimately decides against the tragic view of life from a moral perspective, he certainly admits the tragic elements of life and ponders the fragility of goodness. The dramatist in fact succeeds in reconciling the inquiry into the complexity of human existence with the moral imperatives of a metaphysical ethics, a reconciliation that may ultimately be seen as the result of his acknowledgement of the need to ‘temper’ the moral imperatives of metaphysical philosophy with the insight gained from practical experience about the complexity of action and judgement.

Although from the times of Herod and Hesiod, poetry pointed to virtues and values, even in its own specific way, in today's literary and philosophical-ethical theory, however, we can only find a rare debate about this unusual relationship. Some see the reason for this in the dominant academic and professional profilation of the theory of ethics which, encouraged by Spinoza, all the more strived towards a more empirical and mathematical method in discovering the nature of ethics, as well as the endeavor of literary criticism to meet the academic standards that neglect the connection between literary studies and civic virtues, and turn exclusively to a formalistic and aesthetic criteria. But while in the last few decades in the field of ethics we witness an "ethical turn" in terms of intensive preoccupation with ethics within the public domain, precisely in the area of medicine, economics, psychology, ecology, etc., literary criticism, on the other hand, in the eyes of many critics it still seems quite absent from public debate and there is less interest in the practical and ethical dimension of the text. However, in recent decades a small group of literary critics (F. R. Leavis, W. C. Booth, G. Marshall, J. Hills Miller, N. Carroll, etc.) is turning towards the consideration of ethical problems within literature.