Child Trafficking

32 Billion Dollars- That is the estimated revenue of human trafficking in the world. A large chunk of these are vulnerable children. Human Traffickers have launched a full-scale hunt on children. Pedophiles and child porn Industry which are flourishing like never before (thanks to the cheap and easy internet) has added fuel to the child abduction and trafficking. Children are an easy target for these predators and traffickers as they are naïve and vulnerable.

Publisher: Abacus; Hachette Book Group; Little, Brown and Company
Published: 2008;
ISBN13: 978-0316113786;
ISBN10: 0316113786;
Pages: 368;
Format: Hardback

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Say You’re One of Them is catholic priest, Uwem Akpan’s debut book set in selected countries of Sub-Saharan Africa.  Emerging out of the book’s unleashed passions, are two monsters and a wounded angel. The first monster has two heads: one is poverty, that chronic, terrifying condition of lack; moral chaos is the other: the disintegration of values when the only organising principle that society offers is survival. Towering over Africa, an ancient tree planted in her soil, the second monster bears two fearsome names: Ethnocentrism, religious fanaticism. A swooping vulture, religious fanaticism surveys endless carnage with stony eyes and ethnocentrism surveys the remains of armed conflicts erupting in his name, throughout African lands.

"Although much literature on human trafficking focuses on sex trafficking, a great deal of human trafficking results from migrant workers, compelled - by economic deprivation in their home countries - to seek better life opportunities abroad, especially in agriculture, construction and domestic work. Such labour migration is sometimes legal and well managed, but sometimes not so – with migrant workers frequently threatened or coerced into entering debt bondage arrangements and ending up working in forced labour situations producing goods for illicit markets. This book fills a substantial gap in the existing literature given that labour trafficking is a much more subtle form of exploitation than sex trafficking. It discusses how far large multinational corporations are involved, whether intentionally or unintentionally, in human trafficking for the purposes of labour exploitation. They explore how far corporations are driven to seek cheap labour by the need to remain commercially competitive and examine how the problem often lies with corporations’ subcontractors, who are not as well controlled as they might be. The essays in the volume also outline and assess measures being taken by governments and international agencies to eradicate the problem.

Table of contents
Introduction - Antonela Arhin and Ato Quayson
Foreword: Corporate Liability for Violations of International Human Rights Law - Mohamed Y. Mattar
1. Trafficking for Labour Exploitation: Getting the Responses Right - Roger Plant
2. The Commodification of Human Smuggling and Trafficking - Louise Shelley
3. Child Labour Migrants or Victims of Labour Trafficking: A Segmental Approach - Antonela Arhin
4. Displacing Childhood: Labour Exploitation and Child Trafficking in Sport - Darragh McGee
5. Labor Migration, Human Trafficking and Multinational Corporations within the ECOWAS Region: challenges and opportunities - Ndioro Ndiaye
6. Adults or Children? The Case of Trafficking of Children for Purposes of Exploitative Labour in the Fishing Industry in Ghana - Daniel Kweku Sam
7. Doing Canada's Dirty Work: A Critical Analysis of Law and Policy to Address Labour Exploitation Trafficking - Bethany Hastie
8. Minimum Wage --An Ally in the Fight Against Human Trafficking for Labour Exploitation? - Anne Pawletta and Philipp Schwertmann
9. Responding to Labour Trafficking: Suggestions from Experiences of Local Service Providers - Amy Stevens, Romesh Hettiarachchi and Sung Hyun Yun
10. The Programmatic Approach to combating Trafficking in Human Beings - Ruud Hilgers""

Against a backdrop of rising unemployment and increased deprivation, this FRA Annual report closely examines the situation of those, such as children, who are vulnerable to budget cuts, impacting important fields such as education, healthcare and social services. It looks at the discrimination that Roma continue to face and the mainstreaming of elements of extremist ideology in political and public discourse. It considers the impact the crises have had on the basic principle of the rule of law, as well as stepped up EU Member State efforts to ensure trust in justice systems.

This article examines the matter of private adoptions of minor children and the issues arising from Greek Law 2447/96 on adoptions. It presents the crucial articles of Law 2447/96 which have been amended and in some cases they work against the interest of the child during the conclusion of private adoptions. Finally, it presents proposals for the improvement of legislation and the conclusion of private adoptions focusing on the child-centered character thereof. This article is based on legal references, research, scientific publications, international conventions and articles in the Greek press.

We would like to thank the many young people who gave their time to help us understand their experiences. The evaluation was made possible by many stakeholders helping us to access data. We particularly wish to thank Hannah Stott and Michelle Lee-Izu for leading the trial on behalf of Barnardo's as well as the advocates and other managers within Barnardo's. Many stakeholders in social care, immigration and criminal justice assisted us, showing a commitment to improving the lives of trafficked children in contexts that were turbulent, and for showing us the reasons they agreed and disagreed about the need for an independent child trafficking advocacy service. Our Expert Reference Group helped us to distil key legal and policy frameworks, and to identify the many important practice issues that formed the framework for the evaluation. We were very ably assisted by Olivia Hesketh and Christine Cooper from the Home Office in designing the tools of the enquiry, in marshalling the data, and in making sure of this report's policy relevance. The two academic peer reviewers were thorough, precise and prompt. Everyone gave time in a short space of time, and we are truly grateful.

For the full published version, please see: International Journal of Children's Rights, Volume 24, Issue 2, 2016, pp 378-407

There are an estimated eight million children residing in orphanages, or residential care facilities, globally and it is estimated that four out of five of these children are not orphans. It is well documented that many of these children are taken from their families by recruiters and sold into orphanages for the purpose of profit. These children are known as 'paper orphans'. There is no formal legal academic research available on how international law regards this displacement from family and construction as an orphan. This article provides a legal account of the movement of the children from the family to the orphanage, and considers whether this movement can be categorised as child trafficking under international law. The major point of contention as to whether paper orphans are considered trafficked is whether they experience a form of exploitation that is included in the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. This article examines the forms of exploitation that have been documented as being experienced by paper orphans and argues that the process of paper orphaning meets the current interpretation of the definition of trafficking.

NB This is a pre-peer reviewed version of this paper as submitted to the International Journal of Children's Rights. For the full published version, please see: International Journal of Children's Rights, Volume 24, Issue 2, 2016, pp378-407

This book presents a vivid description of the solutions that researchers have discovered for ethical dilemmas that pose themselves at studying disadvantaged, vulnerable and victimized populations. Ethical codes prescribe that the scholar should in all circumstances avoid potential harm, that informed consent is necessary and that the limits of confidentiality should always be respected. However, in the practice of research among women involved in prostitution, illegal immigrant workers, enslaved children, people who sell their organs and all the traffickers thereof, the ethical rules cannot always be followed. This book shows that there is a surprising variety of arguable possibilities in dealing with ethical dilemmas in the field. Authors reflect on concrete experiences from their own fieldwork in a wide variety of settings such as the USA, Singapore, Kosovo and The Netherlands. Some choose to work on the basis of conscientious partiality, others negotiate the rules with their informants and still others purposely break the rules in order to disclose and damage the exploiters. Researchers may find themselves in a vulnerable position. Their experiences, as presented in this volume, will help field workers, university administrators, representatives of vulnerable groups, philosophers of ethics and most of all students to go into the field well-prepared.

In historical terms, intercountry adoptions from India have had a short run. Within thirty years of its inception, murky scandals of child kidnapping, falsifying paperwork, outright trading, and other tragic stories have ridden these intercountry adoptions.

Worldwide, adoption experts widely believed that ratifying the Hague Convention on Protection of Children and Co-Operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption (1993) would help reduce malpractice in adoption and “prevent the abduction, the sale of, or trafficking in children.”

The Convention aims to minimize malpractice in adoption and “prevent the abduction, the sale of, or trafficking in children. But does regulating help in weeding out cases of malpractice? Or does the regulation of intercountry adoptions, because of the strong demand for children, lead to a legalized market for children without effective control?


“The rules developed under the guise of the Hague Convention do not prevent abuses but instead prevent them from being seen. They mystify and hide the inherent injustice behind a legalized smokescreen. The results are demand-driven “legal orphans” who, according to paperwork, could not be cared for in their own country. The reality is that India could easily care for the 700 to 1,000 children sent abroad yearly. This is a matter of political choice.”

This article dealing with the child trafficking as horrible and terrible trade manner. The issue of human trafficking huge concern for most nations including Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, trafficking in person has long been a common practice-a practice affecting individuals and communities irrespective of age, gender and ethnicity. Child trafficking in Ethiopia is one of the main social problems. This problem is aggravating by prevalence of poverty and traffickers' desire to exploit vulnerable individuals. It is also known that trafficked children experience physical and emotional abuse-exposed rape, starvation, and battery; and are deprived of their needs for normal development-no education, poor health and safety. Notably, children are trafficked both inside and outside of the country. It is extremely challenging to find out the extent and prevalence of this problem, which also complicates the search for an appropriate solution to the problem in Ethiopia. The focus of this secondary systematic review is to highlight and explore the nature and current situation of this problem by examining the profile of the traffickers, actors, associated factor and effect in the current scenario and national response on child trafficking in Ethiopia. The reviewed result from articles, researches and journals reflects that children from a poor family, broken family, living in poverty, persistent unemployment, low social infrastructure, minimum wages, inflation, and social insecurity has a high risk of being trafficked. Result revealed that trafficking has a negative impact on the country image, health and psychological behaviour of the trafficked person.

Human trafficking involves exploitation in prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor, domestic service, and for the purpose of organ removal. The dominant narrative in human trafficking discourse on victims is that of “a young woman and naïve innocent lured or deceived into a life of lurid horror from which escape is nearly impossible,” according to Jo Doezema. This conflicts with the reality of victims who may have exercised agency and been voluntarily involved in the initial stages of the process or those agreeing to work in prostitution. Identifying victims of human trafficking is complex when their very existence in a country as undocumented migrants or their forced participation in activities deemed illegal (prostitution, participation in armed conflict or child soldiering, or criminal offenses) results in their being criminalized rather than protected. The existence of prior victims becoming traffickers, particularly in the sexual exploitation of other ...

Few social phenomena in contemporary South Africa have been subject to so much speculation and raised so many unanswered questions as the country’s child trafficking ‘problem’. The exact scope of child trafficking in South Africa will remain elusive, whilst fearmongering is unlikely to leave our dining room tables and social media spaces. The concept of child trafficking itself is a greasy and contested one, open to misuse, sensation and even discounting. With due consideration to the absence of an unambiguous statistical knowledge base, this article considers sceptics’ assertion of only anecdotal or “little evidence” to substantiate the problem and assesses what insights can be gleaned from available sources. The article focuses on child trafficking and children in the sex trade. A complex and nuanced perspective replaces number counting and simplicity, with the author’s proximity to the study phenomena over the past 18 years serving to string the disconnected ‘pieces’ together. So...

In September 2013, the Democratic Republic of the Congo suspended the issuance of exit letters to orphans adopted by foreigners. This effectively shut down the intercountry adoption process in the Congo DRC. Technically, intercountry adoptions could still be processed; however, the adopted children were not allowed to leave the country.
The reason initially given for the suspension was the reports that children adopted from the Congo DRC were being illegally re-homed once leaving the country. In December 2013 it was then disclosed  that they were investigating adopted children being sold to homosexuals in violation of Congolese law. In July 2014 the program was suspended indefinitely with the revelation that every case the Congo DRC had reviewed contained falsified information.
Although the pressure on the United States government by conservative religious adoption advocate groups and adoption agencies to step in and convince the Congolese government is great, it is clear that the Congolese system is not capable of insuring that ethical and legal adoptions can be processed. Until the Congolese government can guarantee that an ethical intercountry adoption program is in place, the best option for the orphans of the Congo DRC is to suspend the program.
In order to rebuild the much-needed intercountry adoption program, the Congolese government immediately ratify the Hague Convention. Along with this, there needs to be a solid commitment to fund the child welfare system adequately in order for existing laws to be enforced. The United States government should come along side the Congolese government to support them in the creation of a functioning child welfare system. Only when the Congolese government establishes a corruption-free child welfare system will it be advisable for the suspension to be lifted.

Human trafficking involves exploitation in prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor, domestic service, and for the purpose of organ removal. The dominant narrative in human trafficking discourse on victims is that of "a young woman and naïve innocent lured or deceived into a life of lurid horror from which escape is nearly impossible," according to Jo Doezema. This conflicts with the reality of victims who may have exercised agency and been voluntarily involved in the initial stages of the process or those agreeing to work in prostitution. Identifying victims of human trafficking is complex when their very existence in a country as undocumented migrants or their forced participation in activities deemed illegal (prostitution, participation in armed conflict or child soldiering, or criminal offenses) results in their being criminalized rather than protected. The existence of prior victims becoming traffickers, particularly in the sexual exploitation of other women, has been documented by numerous researchers. Here, and in other situations where victims are forced to participate in criminal activities, the victim-offender overlap becomes blurred. This presents a number of ethical and operational problems, in terms of how we recognize victims of human trafficking and how we discern them from offenders. Based upon a number of case studies involving women and children forced into prostitution, participation in armed conflict and terrorism, and criminal activities, the reader begins to understand the complexities of the victim-offender overlap and what measures are available to identify and protect victims of human trafficking from criminal prosecution.

Trafficking in human beings is turning to be a “glocal” phenomenon - subject to increasing international attention in recent years and continuing to be a local development concern. Several domestic anti-trafficking initiatives both by the government and non-government organizations have been spawned in the Philippines. While there is a wealth of documented experience, research, and analysis on sex work and sex trafficking of women and children that cover a spectrum of trafficking issues: trends; causes; abusive practices; and policy and program interventions by multilateral institutions, states, and NGOs certain gaps remain.
A rapid assessment on child trafficking in eight selected sites (Bask Pardo, Bulacao, Cansaga, Lamac, San Roque, Tangke, Labogon, and Umapad was conducted to gather baseline information on the incidence and prevalence of child trafficking in these area. The study mainly used the community organizing and participatory action research (COPAR) approach in the study.
The narratives showed that it cannot be divorced from the specific characteristic of feminization that has been widely acknowledged globally with women and children not only trafficked for sexual exploitation, but also for other types of work. Actual reported cases of trafficking were not documented in the study. It relied mainly on the anecdotal reports of the research participants.
The level of awareness on child trafficking varied across sites as gleaned from the information shared by the participants on the subject matter of child trafficking. In all the study areas, there were intermittent cases of domestic violence, incest, rape, drug addiction, pornography and other violent forms of child abuse. These put children in greater risk of trafficking as a result of their psychological and emotional trauma. Moreover, prostitution as a form of abuse is also a high-risk factor in child trafficking.
There is no single reason why children are trafficked (UNICEF 2009) but rather a wide range of factors and layers of vulnerabilities related to children as individuals, their families, and the socio-economic context in which they live. These factors may be directly experienced by children who are abused or forced to drop out of school.
There are also family-related factors such as family breakdown, domestic violence, substance abuse, and neglect. Socioeconomic factors in which a child is living tend to be indistinct and wide ranging, encompassing social norms and attitudes, market forces, economic opportunities or the lack thereof, labour and migration patterns, legal and policy frameworks, influence of peer pressure and the media, such as poverty and lack of education and employment opportunities. There were reported cases on demands for child labor and sex with children.
The anecdotal reports used in this study reveal discernable patterns of child trafficking in the eight sites. These patterns can be categorized in relation to the purposes for which children are trafficked and the processes by which they are trafficked. The main purpose for which children are trafficked in the study areas is for sexual exploitation such as through child prostitution or the production of child pornography with sporadic reference to the trafficking of children for the purposes of exploitative labor such as domestic services.
Subsequent efforts must be undertaken to gather disaggregated data using community-based mechanisms for data collection in order to generate standard indicators on child trafficking that can be used to establish a national profile.Tackling this difficult technical issue of quantitative data should be simultaneously done with developing evidence-based child protection systems since it offers a more clear-cut conceptual framework that ensures sustainable and better outcomes for children, so that they are protected against all forms of abuse, exploitation, neglect and violence.
This calls for the development and strengthening of grassroots legal and policy frameworks and social behavior changes. Direct involvement to sensitize the residents of the barangayis needed to take collective action on the issue of child trafficking. Participation in formal structures and inclusion in formal procedures of planning, implementation, and evaluating community-wide activities relative to the issue is also necessary. Community organizations pave the way for functional community-based planning, implementing and evaluating of child protection programs where these strategies may be adapted such as education and training, networking, mobilization on child protection and development concerns, implementing of livelihood projects, and developing secondary leaders.

Abstract: Every day, children are being bought, sold and transported away from their homes. The trafficking of human beings particular children has become a multi-dollar business that appears to be growing. Child trafficking is illegal. It is also extremely harmful, as trafficked children are physically and sexually exploited. The United Nations estimates that 246 million children across the world are involved in exploitative labour and that 1.2 million children are trafficked each year. About one million children are exploited in the multi-billion dollar sex industry. Next to drug and gun trafficking, human trafficking is the third top criminal industry in the world. What used to be reported as a one billion dollar trade annually in early 2000, is now reported to generate a yearly profit of around US$ 10-12 Billion. A US state department report has placed India on its second worst category of human trafficking watch list for the fifth year in a row, for allegedly failing to show evidence of increasing efforts to combat the problem. In the report, India is described as a “source, destination and transit country for men, women and children trafficked for the purpose of forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Ignorance, limited resources and poor execution of the protective programmes and policies for children further creates many problems and the problem of trafficking seems to be finding no redress in the near future. It is in this backdrop the present paper attempts to suggest some possible suggestion to check the problem of social menace i.e. child trafficking.

Trafficking is a silent crime. It usually remains hidden from the observation of people, even law enforcement agencies, as either a crime is perpetrated on the trafficked victim or he/she is forced to commit a crime, both of which can exist independent of trafficking. The paper aims to break this silence with reference to child trafficking in the state of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Madhya Pradesh has remained a poor performer when it comes to, both, crimes by and against children. Maharashtra, too, is increasingly becoming known as source, destination and route for trafficking in children. The paper tries to highlight the nature and extent of child trafficking in the two states by analyzing the available 'missing children' and 'trafficked children' data for various regions and districts of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra keeping in mind the prevalent socioeconomic and other factors present. As part of primary research, interviews have been conducted across Madhya Pradesh targeting Law enforcement agencies (Police), Childline and other NGOs, Women and Child Department, Staff at Protection homes and Missing/Trafficked children who have been traced. The aim here is to gain a first-hand experience of the roles and responsibilities of these stakeholders, their personal experience as to the efficiency of the system at place for curbing trafficking and other ground realities. The paper also discusses national and international legal framework in place and the special role that Supreme Court has played to check trafficking in India. At last, recommendations for change in the system and plugging of lacunae within this framework are suggested on the basis of research findings.

Few social phenomena in contemporary South Africa have been subject to so much speculation and raised so many unanswered questions as the country's child trafficking 'problem'. The exact scope of child trafficking in South Africa will remain elusive, whilst fearmongering is unlikely to leave our dining room tables and social media spaces. The concept of child trafficking itself is a greasy and contested one, open to misuse, sensation and even discounting. With due consideration to the absence of an unambiguous statistical knowledge base, this article considers sceptics' assertion of only anecdotal or "little evidence" to substantiate the problem and assesses what insights can be gleaned from available sources. The article focuses on child trafficking and children in the sex trade. A complex and nuanced perspective replaces number counting and simplicity, with the author's proximity to the study phenomena over the past 18 years serving to string the disconnected 'pieces' together. South Africa's Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act 7 of 2013 is discussed as the yardstick for determining what is trafficking and what is not, followed by an overview of available literature and media reports. Available police data is presented and selected successfully prosecuted cases briefly discussed. Findings indicate that some researchers' use of truncated definitions of Trafficking in Persons (TIP) undercounts the prevalence of TIP among research participants and that claims by TIP sceptics of "little evidence to substantiate" the prevalence of child trafficking and children in South Africa's sex trade are misleading. The complex nature and malleability of child trafficking and children in the sex trade are underscored and factors contributing to constraining the measurement of the problem discussed. Woven together, literature, research, media reports, academic studies, police investigations (closed and ongoing) and prosecutions (successful and unsuccessful) over the past three decades-contextualised within South Africa's complex socio-cultural vulnerability landscape-indicate that child trafficking and children in South Africa's sex trade cannot be ignored as a systemic South African problem.

HOUSED IN THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS ARCHIVE at Geneva is a collection of intake surveys from the Rescue Home in the northern Syrian city of Aleppo. These documents record the histories of some 2,000 Armenian girls, boys, and young women who were rescued—or, more often, rescued themselves—from Arab, Kurdish, and Turkish households into which they had been taken during and after the First World War and as a consequence of the Armenian Genocide of 1915.

This article analyzes the extent of child trafficking from a quantitative standpoint. The quantitative research
approach was adopted in this study, supported by the application of cross-sectional exploratory and descriptive research
design, which was used to address the extent of child trafficking in Ethiopia. A total of 636 household respondents were
selected by systematic random sampling technique to fulfil the adopted quantitative survey. Data analysis was carried
out using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 24.0 statistical software packages. Adapt QuantitativeLogistic Regression, Bivariate analysis, Multivariate analysis, and Cross-tabulation of extent and factors of child
trafficking were thoroughly quantified.
The extent of child trafficking from the total result in the study area is about 128 children had been trafficked from the
total of 636 households and that means the extent of child trafficking is about 20.1 percent in East Este Woreda and
Debre Tabor woreda in or 1 child from 5 children had been trafficked. It recommended, the research is needed to identify
the extent of child victims and vulnerable of trafficking in the study area to combat the problem. On the other hand, for a
clear understanding of the International Conventions and Treaties (such as fully translating Rights of the Child and all
ratified conventions), the publication should be translated to Amharic and Oromifa version (local language) in the official
Negarit Gazeta of Ethiopia, so that everyone could understand and seek to implement their right easily. Information gup
is a disadvantage for the nation, the government should use different programs on television and radio to address the
issue.

Purpose
– The market in trafficked children bought and sold for sexual exploitation is one of the most inhumane transnational crimes that appear to have been facilitated by globalisation and its many effects, such as growing disparity in wealth between North and South. Child sex trafficking (CST) in the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) is an extremely complex problem, deeply rooted in historical injustice, gender inequality and poverty. In addition to the complexities of the child trafficking issue, the organisations that seek to combat CST are themselves not always a united force and display their own internal and inter-agency complexities. The purpose of this paper is to examine some of the key complexities of responding to CST in Thailand and Cambodia.

Design/methodology/approach
– The methodology for this research consisted of 22 semi-structured interviews with anti-child trafficking experts in Thailand and Cambodia, in addition to field observations in various child sex tourism hubs in Southeast Asia.

Findings
– The complexities of the CST problem in Thailand and Cambodia are discussed as well as analysis of the internal and inter-agency barriers faced by the organisations that seek to combat CST. The research finds that, due to limitations in donor funding, anti-trafficking organisations face difficulties in effectively responding to all aspects of the CST problem. The recommendation is made for improved advocacy networking against this transnational crime. Recent success stories are highlighted.

Research limitations/implications
– The research for this paper involved semi-structured interviews with staff from non-government organisations and United Nations agencies, but not with government representatives. The lack of available data from Thai and Cambodian government representatives limits the ability of the researcher to evaluate the effectiveness of anti-trafficking organisations’ response to the child trafficking issue. Also lacking is the voice of child trafficking victims, the key beneficiaries of anti-trafficking organisations’ aid and advocacy efforts.

Originality/value
– There is an abundance of literature on the subject of CST but a dearth in scholarly literature on the subject of advocacy and policy responses to CST in Southeast Asia. This paper provides a valuable contribution the knowledge base on child trafficking by analysing both the complexities of the CST issue and the complexities, for anti-trafficking organisations, of effectively combating CST in the GMS.

In South Africa child trafficking has become a central concern for both the state and non-state agencies. Although it is claimed that child trafficking is widespread, currently very little reliable data exists to determine the nature and scope of the problem in the country. What is known about trafficking is largely based on ad hoc studies, questionable and outdated statistics, anecdotal information, and common myths. Furthermore, confusion around the actual definition of human trafficking means that it is regularly conflated with human smuggling and ther forms of irregular migration. These confusions and conflations not only obscure a realistic picture of human trafficking, including that of children, but also tend to be used by the state to justify repressive laws and policies to restrict migration and curtail migrants’ rights while claiming to protect vulnerable migrants, including women and children. At the same time, a growing body of work with migrants, especially unaccompanied migrant children (UMC), in Southern Africa documents their diverse experiences as they cross borders. These experiences include exploitation, abuse, and violence as well as challenges accessing documentation, healthcare, education, and support services. While trafficking can sometimes occur, evidence from this body of work and the qualitative study for this report indicates that this is not always the case. Furthermore, while migrant children are often vulnerable and face risks, they also simultaneously negotiate challenges, are active agents, can be resilient, and embody experiences that extend far beyond what the label of ‘trafficked child’ implies.

The consequences of using child trafficking to represent the myriad realities of children on the move and especially in the name of ‘child protection’ are that migrant children are exposed to additional risks and vulnerabilities. This report, which is the outcome of a collaborative project between the Centre for Child Law at the University of Pretoria and the African Centre for Migration & Society (ACMS) at the University of the Witwatersrand, is based on concerns about the protection and rights of children in South Africa. In particular, the concern that unsubstantiated claims about child trafficking are being used to discourage migration and increase the securitisation of borders, which in turn can impinge on the rights of children, especially migrant children and those who lack documentation. The report will present evidence from the ground that suggests that speaking of child trafficking and failing to recognise what makes children on the move vulnerable is to place children at greater risk. The report also shows that the current gap in data and empirical research allows for an understanding of child trafficking based on assumptions and exaggerated claims about the movement of children across borders to dominate the discourse. While a progressive framework of laws and policies in South Africa designed to protect the rights of children, including non-nationals, exists, the State is seen by a number of service providers and migrant children themselves as not adequately implementing these laws and policies nor understanding the complex realities of children on the move. Furthermore, although there is awareness of the current disconnect between the child trafficking discourse and child trafficking realities observed by service providers, unsubstantiated claims about child trafficking are still being used to justify repressive policies and practices. These policies and practices ironically co-opt the language of ‘protection’ while violating the rights of children, especially migrants and those without documentation. This ultimately renders children more vulnerable and does little to actually fight child trafficking. This report therefore emphasises the urgent need for indepth, country wide, rigorous, and ethical research into child trafficking that can present a clear picture of the nature and scope of this phenomenon and the complex realities of children on the move. This kind of research will go a long way towards comprehensively demystifying the discourse on child trafficking and allow for a better understanding of the experiences and vulnerabilities of child migrants and children without documentation in South Africa. In particular, it will show what makes children more vulnerable—including blocked access to documentation and education and increased hostilities towards nonnationals. The research also shows the often unseen consequences of the discourse of child trafficking on children’s rights broadly and on children on the move specifically.

Victims of child trafficking, who have been rescued from exploitation, have the need to get recovery treatments or therapies. Being free from trafficking or prostitution is not the final episode. Though an absolute cure cannot be promised, they still need to under go through those recovery processes in order to go back to their normal lives on the society. In this qualitative research, in-depth interviews will be conducted for five respondents, namely girls between fourteen and seventeen years old, who were victims and currently getting protection and treatment at a recovery centre for trafficking victims in Makassar. The findings of this study revealed the various needs of child trafficking or prostitution victims, such as the need for protection and advocacy, the need for secrecy confidentiality, the need for reintegration or society adaptation treatments, the need for constant mediation with parents and other family members, the need for education and employment preparation training. These needs must be met to ensure that children were able to live and be accepted as normal by the society and to ensure that they do not return to traffickers who have exploited them. The cooperation of all parties is crucial in assisting a social worker to play his/her role as case manager

European Union (EU) Member States and institutions introduced a number of legal and policy measures in 2014 to safeguard fundamental rights in the EU. Notwithstanding these efforts, a great deal remains to be done, and it can be seen that the situation in some areas is alarming: the number of migrants rescued or apprehended at sea as they were trying to reach Europe’s borders quadrupled over 2013; more than a quarter of children in the EU are at risk of poverty or social exclusion; and an increasing number of political parties use xenophobic and anti-immigrant rhetoric in their campaigns, potentially increasing some people’s vulnerability to becoming victims of crime or hate crime.

‘Child trafficking’ has recently been critically positioned within moral panic theory by authors such as Westwood (2010) and Cree et al. (2014) making links between historical and present day presentations of this social issue. This paper contributes to this discussion but is distinct in its central concern; how separated and moving children and young people experience the present UK ‘child trafficking’ framework, in the midst of moral panic. Moral panics create conditions of blame, disrepute and loss, which this paper explores in relation to ‘child trafficking’ policy and practice and considers the implications for trafficked children. (Non-)contemporary concepts of childhood underpinning the ‘child trafficking’ framework are examined, which posit children and childhood dichotomously as either innocent and lost, passive to abuse and wholly dependent on adult protection or as complicit, undeserving threats. In ‘child trafficking’ policy and practice, these constructs variably punish or ‘protect’ children, failing to address this group of children’s needs. 
In the current climate of moral panics about social phenomena that seemingly threaten our social fabric and moral order (Critcher, 2009) through ‘enacted melodramas’ (Wright, 2015), social work research needs to critically engage with ‘claims-makers’ (Clapton et al., 2013) and present alternative renderings of social problems. This paper argues that social work research is well placed to redress moral panics through its activity in engaging ethically with people who are marginalised with difficult social problems, without a voice, as the subjects of moral panics.

Keywords: Child trafficking, moral panic, children, childhood.

In The Politics of Victimhood in Post-conflict Societies, ed. Vincent Druliolle & Roddy Brett (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).

The chapter analyses the struggle of Spain’s stolen children and their relatives to obtain truth and justice. It concentrates on one central issue, namely the question of how they define themselves as victims. After explaining the difference between the lost and the stolen children, the chapter accounts for the legal, institutional and socio-cultural obstacles that victims and their relatives face in their pursuit of truth and justice. The third section argues that the understanding of the relationship between Spain’s lost and stolen children matters and that what is at stake is whether the stolen children and their relatives see themselves as victims of Franco’s dictatorship and, by implication, the definition of their legal and political struggle in the present. The conclusion critically reflects on the extent to which the struggle of Spain’s stolen children illustrates the idea of a competition between victims in their struggle for recognition and justice.

Di industri seksual komersial, praktik pelacuran yang melibatkan anak-anak perempuan di bawah umur adalah salah satu bagian dari industri dan perdagangan seks global yang telah menggurita dan merambah ke berbagai bentuk layanan. Meski desakan dari berbagai pihak, termasuk dari aktivis kemanusiaan dan perlindungan hak-hak anak yang meminta agar praktik pelacuran yang melibatkan anak-anak dihentikan, perkembangan industri pelacuran di berbagai negara dan daerah justru makin marak. Selain karena perputaran uang dalam bisnis pelacuran benar-benar luar biasa, praktik pelacuran yang melibatkan anak perempuan umumnya tetap sulit diberantas karena bertali-temali dengan faktor kemiskinan, kasus child abuse, masih kuatnya ideologi patriarkhi yang memarginalisasi kaum perempuan, dan ditambah modus operandi para pelaku trafficking dan ulah germo serta mucikari yang selalu mencari korban-korban baru untuk menghidupi sektor industri seksual komersial yang mereka kelola. Kata-Kata Kunci: anak perempuan, child trafficking, dan industri seksual komersial.

Trafficking of children for labour exploitation is a profit-oriented criminal activity by which children are recruited, transported, harboured or received for the purpose of labour exploitation irrespective of whether or not force, abduction, fraud or other means were used. This paper examines child labour trafficking in the context of human rights violations and as the worst form of child labour. In an attempt to situate the discourse of alleged labour exploitation and trafficking of Roma children in Montenegro, focusing in particular on instances of child begging, this paper offers an overview of the international legal framework as well as the Government of Montenegro’s policy framework relevant to this issue; an analysis of implicated historical, familial and cultural structures; and focuses on identifying root causes in terms of push-pull factors that are associated with enhancing children’s vulnerability and proneness to exploitation. Along with a set of recommendations, in closing, the paper calls for a more sophisticated analysis of child labour trafficking and, in the case of Roma children, a more nuanced understanding of historical and cultural pretexts against the backdrop of labour trafficking.