Bone Mechanics

The ability of Minkowski Functionals to characterize local structure in different biological tissue types has been demonstrated in a variety of medical image processing tasks. We introduce anisotropic Minkowski Functionals (AMFs) as a novel variant that captures the inherent anisotropy of the underlying gray-level structures. To quantify the anisotropy characterized by our approach, we further introduce a method to compute a quantitative measure motivated by a technique utilized in MR diffusion tensor imaging, namely fractional anisotropy. We showcase the applicability of our method in the research context of characterizing the local structure properties of trabecular bone micro-architecture in the proximal femur as visualized on multi-detector CT. To this end, AMFs were computed locally for each pixel of ROIs extracted from the head, neck and trochanter regions. Fractional anisotropy was then used to quantify the local anisotropy of the trabecular structures found in these ROIs and to compare its distribution in different anatomical regions. Our results suggest a significantly greater concentration of anisotropic trabecular structures in the head and neck regions when compared to the trochanter region (p < 10-4). We also evaluated the ability of such AMFs to predict bone strength in the femoral head of proximal femur specimens obtained from 50 donors. Our results suggest that such AMFs, when used in conjunction with multi-regression models, can outperform more conventional features such as BMD in predicting failure load. We conclude that such anisotropic Minkowski Functionals can capture valuable information regarding directional attributes of local structure, which may be useful in a wide scope of biomedical imaging applications.

built between 1855 and 1860, remains today more or less in its original appearance. On stepping into the dimly lit entrance foyer and climbing the leaden-grey stone steps, a visitor may be unprepared for the architectural vision beyond the unassuming wooden doors. Natural light pours through the clear glass roof, illuminating the museum's central court. The daylight touches every surface-the specimens, the walls, the floors, corners and crevasses. Numerous stone and iron columns support a roof formed of overlapping glass scales, interwoven with iron cross work, added to which are the skeletons of great leviathans suspended from this extraordinary iron and glass ceiling. The juxtaposition of the cast-iron lancet arches that support the roof with the large curving rib bones of the various whale specimens hanging above creates a remarkable sight. As the bright midday sun reaches its zenith, the bones seem to appropriate the same steely-grey and ochre-yellow patina as the ironwork, making their individual forms, colours and textures indistinguishable from one another (figure 1). This phenomenon of material slippage is striking, and it raises the question as to whether this chromatic conflation of bone and iron was an intentional part of the museum's original design. In the museum, the bone and iron both share the visual attribute of being relatively narrow and long, particularly when considering the rib bones, with their delicately curving processes, echoed in the roof's iron lancet arches. Both materials yellow over time, but they also express many other similar intrinsic properties that had not gone unnoticed by nineteenth-century scholars and academics. 1 They were considered to be ideal building materials, having the shared properties of being both light and incredibly strong. The intrinsic properties, physical

Variation in humeral and femoral structural morphology of Great Plains populations was examined for differences due to subsistence practice and geographical location. The sample consisted of Archaic hunter-gatherers, early and middle Woodland hunter-gatherers, late Woodland incipient horticulturalists, Plains village horticulturalists, and equestrian nomads from the northern, central, and southern Plains. In general, skeletal morphology on the Plains was relatively homogeneous throughout time and space. There are few significant univariate differences in same sex comparisons or in sexual dimorphism due to either subsistence practice or geographical region. However, males tend to cluster partially by subsistence practice, while females cluster by geographical region. Subsistence differences are generally associated with long bone size and activity related robusticity. Geographical variation between groups is most likely associated with climatically-induced differences in body build and not terrain relief.

In 2006 a cast-iron coffin was discovered in an unmarked burial plot in Lexington, Missouri. A multifaceted investigation was conducted to provide historical documentation and possible identification of the individual. The coffin is an early Fisk Patent Metallic Burial Case. Osteological analyses indicate that the skeletal remains belong to a 20 to 30 year old white female who consistently ate an omnivorous diet with significant amounts of C4 plants or seafood. Rib morphology and her burial garments suggest she frequently wore restrictive clothing. No gross skeletal pathological lesions or trauma were observed, but histological examination of the ribs revealed bone remodeling of the visceral surface. Subsequent bacterial DNA analysis of the ribs and sternum indicate the presence of tuberculosis infection. Although not conclusive, multiple lines of evidence are consistent with the skeletal remains representing Elizabeth (Triplett) Stewart who died in 1854 of pulmonary tuberculosis. This multidisciplinary research significantly contributes to the local history of Lexington, MO and provides a likely identification of the deceased individual for the Stewart Family.

In 1990, Gilbert and Gill proposed a simple metric technique using femur subtrochanteric anteroposterior and mediolateral diaphyseal diameters for discriminating between Native American and American Black and White femora in medicolegal and bioarchaeological context. However, there are several inherent assumptions in the method that may affect its validity. The assumptions include minimal sexual dimorphism, temporal and geographical homogeneity within populations, and that differences between populations in femur subtrochanteric size and shape are primarily due to genetic variation. In this study, these assumptions are tested using femora from seven populations (African, American Black, American White, Australian, Native American, Hispanic, and Polynesian). The results indicate that sexual dimorphism and geographical and temporal heterogeneity in proximal femur diaphyseal shape within Native Americans is not great enough to significantly affect the validity of the of the Gilbert and Gill method (GGM).  Variation between populations is most likely due to combined genetic and environmental factors, but differences in proximal femur shape between Native Americans and American Blacks/Whites are sufficient to allow accurate discrimination between these groups.  Caution, however, must be taken during investigations where populations other than Native Americans or American Blacks/Whites are present, and therefore, the GGM may have limited forensic anthropological application in many parts of the world.

Use of proximal femur shape to determine ancestry has appeal, but its validity is problematic because of unaddressed issues associated with skeletal plasticity, within- and between-population variation, sample selection, and interobserver error.  In this paper, I inspect within- and between-group variation in proximal femur shape using five groups (American Blacks, American Whites, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Polynesians), and examine the affect of three environmental variables (subsistence strategy, physical terrain, and geographical region). Finally, I consider the validity of using the proximal femur to assess ancestry.  The results show that there is significant within-group variation in proximal femur shape. Among Native Americans, both geographical location and subsistence strategy have a significant affect on proximal femur shape.  Nevertheless, this study generally verifies the assertion that the proximal femur can be used reliably to distinguish Native Americans from American Blacks and Whites, but its precision may be reduced in some geographical regions.

Bone disorder is a common abnormality in most of the human kind. This emerges with mild stiffness and later ends up with joint immobility. X-rays are the most commonly used means of visualizing the joint, but at times ultrasound and MRI are also used. The methods can be classified into invasive methods and noninvasive methods. Invasive methods are generally done through image studies which do not furnish information regarding the early disorders in bone joints and on the other hand study procedures are painful to the subjects. This work deals with a non- invasive method of early diagnosis of bone disorders. The VAG signals acquired on the surface of the suspicious bone joint are analyzed using Node MCU which yields information regarding the bone disorders. The study can be extended for early diagnosis of bone disorders.

Bone geometry is commonly measured on computed tomographic (CT) and X-ray microtomographic (μCT) images. We obtained hundreds of CT, μCT and synchrotron μCT images of bones from diverse species that needed to be analysed remote from scanning hardware, but found that available software solutions were expensive, inflexible or methodologically opaque. We implemented standard bone measurements in a novel ImageJ plugin, BoneJ, with which we analysed trabecular bone, whole bones and osteocyte lacunae. BoneJ is open source and free for anyone to download, use, modify and distribute.

Bone tissue engineering has developed significantly in recent years as there has been increasing demand for bone substitutes due to trauma, cancer, arthritis, and infections. The scaffolds for bone regeneration need to be mechanically stable and have a 3D architecture with interconnected pores. With the advances in additive manufacturing technology, these requirements can be fulfilled by 3D printing scaffolds with controlled geometry and porosity using a low-cost multistep process. The scaffolds, however, must also be bioactive to promote the environment for the cells to regenerate into bone tissue. To determine if a low-cost 3D printing method for bespoke SiOC(N) porous structures can regenerate bone, these structures were tested for osteointegration potential by using human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs). This includes checking the general biocompatibilities under the osteogenic differentiation environment (cell proliferation and metabolism). Moreover, cell morphology was observed by confocal microscopy, and gene expressions on typical osteogenic markers at different stages for bone formation were determined by real-time PCR. The results of the study showed the pore size of the scaffolds had a significant impact on differentiation. A certain range of pore size could stimulate osteogenic differentiation, thus promoting bone regrowth and regeneration.

Cross-sectional geometrical (CSG) properties of an Iron Age Samnite group from Alfedena necropolis (Abruzzo, Italy, 2600-2400 B.P) are compares with a Ligurian Neolithic sample (6000-5500 B.P). In the period under examination, Samnites were organized in a tribal confederation led by patrilinear aristocracies, indicating incipient social stratification. In comparison, Neolithic society lacked clear signs of social hierarchy. The subsistence of both groups was mainly based on pastoralism and agriculture, but changes in habitual behavior are expected due to the socio-economic transformations that characterized the Iron Age. The Samnites’ warlike ideology suggests that unimanual weapon-use and training would have become frequent for males. The intensification of agriculture and the adoption of transhumant pastoralism, performed by a smaller subset of the population, likely led to a lower average level of logistic mobility. The strongly genderized ideology of the period suggests a strict sexual division pof labor, with women primarily performing sedentary tasks. CSG properties based on periosteal contours were calculated for humeri, femora, and tibiae (N = 61). Results corroborated the expectations: Alfedena males show substantial humeral bilateral asymmetry, indicating prevalent use of one arm, likely due to weapon training. In both sexes lower limb results indicate reduced obility with respect to the Neolithic group. Sexual dimorphism is significant in both humeral asymmetry and lower limb indicators of mobility. Although both groups could be broadly defined as agropastoral based on archaeological and historical evidence, CSG analysis confirmed important differences in habitual behavior.

Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) is the main treatment postmenopausal osteoporosis. However, ERT causes serious side effects, such as cancers and thromboembolic problems. Labisia pumila var. alata (LPva) is a herb with potential as an alternative to ERT to prevent complications of osteoporosis, especially fragility fractures. This study was conducted to determine the effects of LPva on the biomechanical strength of femora exposed to osteoporosis due to estrogen deficiency, using the postmenopausal rat model. Thirty-two female rats were randomly divided into four groups: Sham-operated (Sham), ovariectomized control (OVXC), ovariectomized with Labisia pumila var. alata (LP), and ovariectomized with ERT (Premarin) (ERT). The LPva and ERT were administered via oral gavage daily at doses of 17.5 mg/kg and 64.5 μg/kg, respectively. Following two months of treatment, the rats were euthanized, and their right femora were prepared for bone biomechanical testing. The results showed that ovariectomy compromised the femoral strength, while LPva supplementation to the ovariectomized rats improved the femoral strength. Therefore, LPva may be as effective as ERT in preventing fractures due to estrogen-deficient osteoporosis.

Sagittal fractures of the first phalanx are a common, potentially catastrophic injury in racehorses. These fractures are often linked to an acute, one time, biomechanical event; however, recent evidence implies that chronic exposure to stress can lead to the accumulation of bony changes that affect the structural integrity of the bone and increase the likelihood of fracture. The aim of the study was to compare variations of two common metrics of bone adaptation – subchondral bone density and thickness across the proximal articular surface of the first phalanx in Thoroughbred horses that (1) raced but never experienced a first phalanx fracture (Raced Control); (2) raced and had experienced fracture of the contralateral first phalanx (Contralateral to Fracture); (3) had never raced or experienced a first phalanx fracture (Unraced Control). A total of 22 first phalangeal bones were sampled post-mortem and imaged using micro-computed tomography calibrated for mineral density measures. Measurements of volumetric subchondral bone mineral density and thickness were taken from images at five sites from medial to lateral, in three coronal planes (25, 50 and 75% dorsal-palmar). At each of the 15 sites, measurements were repeated and averaged across 10 adjacent micro-computed tomography slices of bone, spanning 0.75 mm. The magnitude and variance of these measurements were compared between sites and between cohorts with non-parametric statistical tests. Across the proximal osteochondral surface of the first phalanx, the pattern of subchondral bone volumetric bone mineral density and thickness varied with each coronal section studied. The subchondral bone thickness was greater for the central and dorsal coronal sections, compared with the palmar section. For the race-fit groups (Raced Control and Contralateral to Fracture), the highest volumetric bone mineral density was in the central sagittal groove. The volumetric bone mineral density was significantly greater in the sagittal groove in the central coronal section in the raced than the unraced group. The Contralateral to Fracture group demonstrated significantly greater variance of volumetric bone mineral density compared with the Raced Control and Unraced Control (P < 0.0001), with no difference in variance noted between the Raced Control and Unraced Control groups. There was a small (R rank = 0.3) but significant correlation between subchondral bone volumetric bone mineral density and thickness in the Contralateral to Fracture group (P = 0.005). The findings demonstrate that differences exist in subchondral bone volumetric bone mineral density and thickness across the proximal osteochondral surface of the equine first phalanx in horses with different training histories. The findings also demonstrate that the subchondral bone of the sagittal groove of the equine first phalanx adapts to race-training in the race-fit groups (Raced Control and Contralateral to Fracture) with an increase in volumetric bone mineral density relative to unraced controls. Within the race-trained groups, the Contralateral to Fracture bones had a greater variance of volumetric bone mineral density, suggesting that stress-induced bone adaptation had become more erratic, potentially contributing to the aetiology of sagittal fractures of the first phalanx in the Thoroughbred racehorse.

The study investigates differences in femur midshaft shape, robusticity, and sexual dimorphism derived from external measurements between a broad range of prehistoric and historic North American populations with different subsistence strategies and inferred levels of mobility. The sample was divided into six groups to test whether observed femur midshaft variables follow the patterns predicted based on archaeologically and historically determined subsistence and mobility data. The results suggest that there is significant variation in femur midshaft shape and robusticity in all populations and that inferred mobility levels do not correspond consistently with femur midshaft structure in either males or females. Results do, however, support the prediction that sexual dimorphism is generally greater in more mobile populations.

Mechanobiology, the study of the influence of mechanical loads on biological processes through signaling to cells, is fundamental to the inherent ability of bone tissue to adapt its structure in response to mechanical stimulation. The immense contribution of computational modeling to the nascent field of bone mechanobiology is indisputable, having aided in the interpretation of experimental findings and identified new avenues of inquiry. Indeed, advances in computational modeling have spurred the development of this field, shedding new light on problems ranging from the mechanical response to loading by individual cells to tissue differentiation during events such as fracture healing. To date, in silico bone mechanobiology has generally taken a reductive approach in attempting to answer discrete biological research questions, with research in the field broadly separated into two streams: (1) mechanoregulation algorithms for predicting mechanobiological changes to bone tissue and (2) models investigating cell mechanobiology. Future models will likely take advantage of advances in computational power and techniques, allowing multiscale and multiphysics modeling to tie the many separate but related biological responses to loading together as part of a larger systems biology approach to shed further light on bone mechanobiology. Finally, although the ever-increasing complexity of computational mechanobiology models will inevitably move the field toward patient-specific models in the clinic, the determination of the context in which they can be used safely for clinical purpose will still require an extensive combination of computational and experimental techniques applied to in vitro and in vivo applications .

"The purpose of this article is to investigate
temporal shifts in skeletal robusticity to infer behavioral
changes in two populations (Neolithic, NEOL
and Medieval, MED) settled in the same geographic area
but involved in different subsistence economies (pastoralism
and coastal resources exploitation). This comparison
allows us to test the hypothesis that occupational
stress and mobility in the same environment produce
predictable changes in the robusticity of both upper and
lower limbs. Results show a lower degree of humeral
robusticity and a similar degree of humeral asymmetry
in the two sexes in the MED population. These results
are consistent with the relatively less stressful subsistence
economy documented in the MED population relative
to that of the NEOL. Lower limb results suggest that femoral robusticity does not correlate directly with the level of logistical mobility, but is instead due to the summation of several diverse factors that place biomechanical loads on the hindlimb, particularly unevenness of the terrain. However, female femoral gracility seems to indicate that below a certain ‘‘threshold’’ of mobility, i.e., movement over the natural terrain, terrain conformation is no longer the main contributing factor to femoral robusticity. The femoral shape index Ix/Iy declines through time, particularly in males. This agrees with
the expected mobility of the samples based on archaeological
and historical data, providing further evidence on the reliability of this index in inferring terrestrial mobility."

INTRODUCTION: Bone is a highly intricate material with a complex hierarchical fabrication from the cellular level to the networks to bone tissues which are pronominally made up of collagen. In this study, mice bone specimens from the tm1a Col1a2 null line were tested to investigate the micromechanical properties of bone. Three genotypes of bone specimen samples were used in this study: (‘Wild type’ (WT) which is made from normal collagen, Knock Out’ (KO) which is made from abnormal collagen and heterozygous (HET), which is made of normal and abnormal collagen).
AIM: The aim of this project was to investigate the role of collagen mutation on bone micromechanics.
METHODOLOGY: Using the materialographic specimen preparation for mammalian bone, the preparation of bone specimen samples (WT, KO and HET) was done in a step by step approach. The G200 Nanoindenter was used to obtain elastic modulus (EM) and hardness (H) data using the Berkovich tip and the Oliver-Pharr method. Optical images were also obtained from the same machine using the live-feed optical microscope embedded in the Nanoindenter. Measurements of the cortical thickness of each specimen samples were obtained using ‘image J’ software. SEM was used to investigate the micro and nanostructure of the specimen samples; and statistical analysis was done for raw data obtained from nanoindentation using ‘OriginPro’ software to examine trends in EM and H data.
RESULTS: There is a direct correlation between the elastic modulus (EM) and hardness (H) of the specimen samples used in this study. With an R2 value of 0.73, the correlation between EM and H are statistically significant. The combined ♂ and ♀ data indicates that the EM of WT is lower than KO in both 10s and 100s hold periods and Het has a lower EM compared to WT and KO in both hold periods. The combined ♂ and ♀ H data indicates KO having the highest H data and Het genotype having the lowest H data. When separated by gender, for male EM, the correlation between all different comparisons observed were statistically significant except in the comparison between WT and KO. The H data for all comparisons does not show any statistically significant difference. The female EM data showed statistically different comparison between the WT vs KO vs Het and WT vs Het data. However, there was no significant difference between WT vs KO and KO vs Het. The H data also indicates that only the 100s hold period for WT vs Het comparison was significant.
CONCLUSION: Data from nanoindentation indicates that the EM data for Het genotype in ♂ and ♀ (for both 10s and 100s hold periods) is affected by collagen mutation. The imaging experiments also indicate a similar trend.

Femur subtrochanteric size and shape can be used to differentiate between adult Native Americans and American Blacks and Whites, but little is known about when shape differences are established during growth and development. Ontological changes in subtrochanteric shape were examined using 74 Native American and 61 American Black/White subadult femora. At birth the proximal femur diaphysis is relatively circular in both groups. Between birth and five years, the diaphysis becomes more mediolaterally broad, especially in Native Americans, due to differential growth between the mediolateral and anteroposterior planes. This change may be due to biomechanical stresses associated with developing a mature gait pattern. After the age of five, growth occurs more equally in the two planes and shape does not change significantly. Adult shape of the proximal femur is established by approximately five years of age and can be used to discriminate between Native American and American Black/White femora in older subadults.

When bone is dry or subject to high speed impact it assumes the fracturing properties of a brittle solid. Because
of this we can appeal to the mechanics of brittle solid fracture to study the conditions under which bone tools fractured.
This paper presents a review of two relatively new techniques for examining use-related damage in bone tools, namely,
macrofracture analysis and micro-CT. Both methods rely on the breakage mechanics of brittle solids under dynamic loading
conditions. This paper explores these techniques in the context of bone hunting weapon identification. Macrofracture
analysis is an inexpensive, easy-to-use technique that allows for the accurate identification of tools subject to longitudinal
impact, but their absence does not rule out this activity. Micro-CT is a machine that provides 3D X-ray images of objects
and can be used to image bone histological features. The visualisation of micro-cracks with the aid of micro-CT allows
for the identification of various loading conditions where no visible surface use-wear exists. Patterns of micro-crack formation
and degree of propagation can inform on different modes of loading, including static loading from trampling and
dynamic loading from hunting.

Humeral and femoral cross-sectional properties from three archaeological variants of the Arikara, an American Great Plains Indian tribe, were analyzed for temporal (16th to 19th centuries) changes in long bone architecture, asymmetry, and sexual dimorphism associated with intensification of horticulture during the late protohistoric and early historic periods.  There were a number of significant changes in long bone, especially femoral, cross-sectional morphology and asymmetry among females through time that probably reflect increases in the workload necessary to produce surplus crops. Changes in long bone architecture among males are restricted to the humerus and may reflect a greater reliance on firearms.  The pattern of sexual dimorphism also changes through time among the Arikara due to a combination of environmental (nutrition and disease) and mechanical factors.

A Fisk patent metallic burial case from Western Missouri: an interdisciplinary and comprehensive effort to reconstruct the history of an early settler of Lexington, Missouri Your article is protected by copyright and all rights are held exclusively by Springer-Verlag. This e-offprint is for personal use only and shall not be self-archived in electronic repositories. If you wish to self-archive your work, please use the accepted author's version for posting to your own website or your institution's repository. You may further deposit the accepted author's version on a funder's repository at a funder's request, provided it is not made publicly available until 12 months after publication. Abstract In 2006 a cast-iron coffin was discovered in an unmarked burial plot in Lexington, Missouri. A multifaceted investigation was conducted to provide historical documentation and possible identification of the individual. The coffin is an early Fisk Patent Metallic Burial Case. Osteological analyses indicate that the skeletal remains belong to a 20 to 30 year old white female who consistently ate an omnivorous diet with significant amounts of C4 plants or seafood. Rib morphology and her burial garments suggest she frequently wore restrictive clothing. No gross skeletal pathological lesions or trauma were observed except for a patch of reactive bone and an atypical pattern of bone remodeling on the visceral surface of the sixth rib. Subsequent bacterial DNA analysis of the ribs and sternum indicate the presence of tuberculosis infection. Although not conclusive, multiple lines of evidence are consistent with the skeletal remains representing Elizabeth (Triplett) Stewart who died in 1854 of pulmonary tuberculosis. This multidisciplinary research significantly contributes to the local history of Lexington, Missouri and provides a likely identification of the deceased individual for the Stewart Family.

Osteoporosis is more common in India. The prevention of 'first' osteoporotic fracture is better than cure. The central dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) bone densitometer is not widely available, and is expensive. The aim of this study was to screen south Indian rural population aged ≥50 years, for predicting future osteoporotic fracture risk using a simple online FRAX® Calculator. A total number of 48 rural populations (male:female= 25:23), aged ≥ 50 years, residing at Potheri Village, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India, were studied. The forearm bone mineral density (BMD, g cm -2 ) of each subject was measured using a peripheral DXA (pDXA) densitometer. Using the value, the femur neck BMD was predicted using the published regression equation with good sensitivity. The 10-year probability of future osteoporotic fracture risk was evaluated using a FRAX calculator. It was found that, both major osteoporotic fracture risk as well as hip fracture risk was 1.8 folds greater in osteoporotic females than in osteoporotic males. Further, when applying threshold value (FRAX Score >3%), it was found that 20% (5/25) and 26.1% (6/23) of the males and females were found to be at greater risk for future osteoporotic hip fracture, and hence a suitable personalized preventive treatment is to be started in order to prevent their future bone mineral loss.

Mechanical loading is thought to be a determinant of bone mass and geometry. Both ground reaction forces and tibial strains increase with running speed. This study investigates the hypothesis that surrogates of bone strength in male and female master sprinters, middle and long distance runners and race-walkers vary according to discipline-specific mechanical loading from sedentary controls. Bone scans were obtained by peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography (pQCT) from the tibia and from the radius in 106 sprinters, 52 middle distance runners, 93 long distance runners and 49 race-walkers who were competing at master championships, and who were aged between 35 and 94 years. Seventy-five age-matched, sedentary people served as control group.

""Mobility patterns affect the loads placed on the lower limbs during locomotion and may influence variation in lower limb diaphyseal robusticity and shape. This relationship commonly forms the basis for inferring mobility patterns from hominin fossil and skeletal remains. This study assesses the correspondence
between athletic histories, varying by loading intensity, repetition and directionality, measured using a recall questionnaire, and peripheral quantitative computed tomography-derived measurements of tibial diaphysis rigidity and shape. Participants included male university varsity cross-country runners (n 5 15), field hockey players (n 5 15), and controls (n 5 20) [mean age: 22.1 (SD 1/2 2.6) years]. Measurements of tibial rigidity (including J, %CA, Imax, Imin, and average cortical thickness) of both runners and field hockey players were greater than controls (P
0.05). Differences in tibial
shape (Imax/Imin, P
0.05) between runners and hockey players reflect pronounced maximum plane (Imax) rigidity in runners, and more symmetrical hypertrophy (Imax, Imin) among hockey players. This corresponds with the generally unidirectional locomotor patterns of runners, and the multidirectional patterns of hockey players. These results support the relationship between mobility and tibial diaphysis morphology as it is generally interpreted in the anthropological literature, with greater levels of mobility associated with increased diaphyseal
robusticity and shape variation. Although exercise intensity may be the primary influence on these properties, the repetitiveness of the activity also deserves consideration. In conclusion, bone morphological patterns can reflect habitual behaviors, with adaptation to locomotor activities likely contributing to variation in tibial rigidity and shape properties in archaeological and fossil samples.""

"This paper investigates the changes in upper and lower limb robusticity and activity patterns that accompanied the transition to a Neolithic subsistence in western Liguria (Italy). Diaphyseal robusticity measures were obtained from cross-sectional geometric properties of the humerus and femur in a sample of 16 individuals (eight males and eight females) dated to about 6,000–5,500 BP. Comparisons with European Late Upper Paleolithics (LUP) indicate increased humeral robusticity in Neolithic Ligurian (NEOL) males, but not in females, with
a significant reduction in right-left differences in both
sexes. Sexual dimorphism in robusticity increases in upper and lower limb bones. Regarding the femur, while all female indicators of bending strength decrease steadily through time, values for NEOL males approach those of LUP. This suggests high, and unexpected, levels of mechanical stress for NEOL males, probably reflecting the effects of the mountainous terrain on lower limb remodeling.
Comparisons between NEOL males and a small sample
of LUP hunter-gatherers from the same area support
this interpretation. In conclusion, cross-sectional geometry
data indicate that the transition to Neolithic economies
in western Liguria did not reduce functional requirements
in males, and suggest a marked sexual division of labor involving a more symmetrical use of the upper limb, and different male-female levels of locomotory stress. When articulated with archaeological, faunal, paleopathological, and ethnographic evidence, these results support the hypothesis of repetitive, bimanual use of axes tied to pastoral activities in males, and of more sedentary tasks
linked to agriculture in females."

Context: Periodontitis causes pocket formation, gingival recession, and destruction of periodontal ligaments and alveolar bone. Periodontitis disturbs the attachment of periodontal ligaments to the maxillary and mandibular bones. The α-mangostin has shown role-playing in the bone remodeling process.

Aims: To evaluate the potential of α-mangostin induce the TGFβ1 titer associated with the increased mandibular bone volume on the alveolar bone remodeling of periodontitis of Rattus novergicus.

Methods: The α-mangostin used to the single administration dosage on the rat periodontitis model on the 7 and 14 days. TGF-β1 titer tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, while the X-Ray Micro-CT/Micro Computed Tomography examined the volume’s development of the mandibular bone.

Results: At the 7 days, 0.5 and 1% of α-mangostin had a better effect to increase the bone volume, and TGF-β1 titer has linearity of bone development at concentrations of 0.5 to 2%. At 14 days, 1 and 2% of α-mangostin exhibited a better effect on inducing an increase in mandibular bone volume and TGF-β1 titer. The linearity of both occurs at concentrations of 0.5 to 1%. The Micro-CT of the mandibular bone showed callus or new bone formation at the edge of each treatment group’s lesion as an indicator of bone remodeling.

Conclusions: α-Mangostin induced an increase in the TGF-β1 titer, which was in line with the rise in the volume of the mandibular bone of Rattus novergicus.

A Fisk patent metallic burial case from Western Missouri: an interdisciplinary and comprehensive effort to reconstruct the history of an early settler of Lexington, Missouri Your article is protected by copyright and all rights are held exclusively by Springer-Verlag. This e-offprint is for personal use only and shall not be self-archived in electronic repositories. If you wish to self-archive your work, please use the accepted author's version for posting to your own website or your institution's repository. You may further deposit the accepted author's version on a funder's repository at a funder's request, provided it is not made publicly available until 12 months after publication. Abstract In 2006 a cast-iron coffin was discovered in an unmarked burial plot in Lexington, Missouri. A multifaceted investigation was conducted to provide historical documentation and possible identification of the individual. The coffin is an early Fisk Patent Metallic Burial Case. Osteological analyses indicate that the skeletal remains belong to a 20 to 30 year old white female who consistently ate an omnivorous diet with significant amounts of C4 plants or seafood. Rib morphology and her burial garments suggest she frequently wore restrictive clothing. No gross skeletal pathological lesions or trauma were observed except for a patch of reactive bone and an atypical pattern of bone remodeling on the visceral surface of the sixth rib. Subsequent bacterial DNA analysis of the ribs and sternum indicate the presence of tuberculosis infection. Although not conclusive, multiple lines of evidence are consistent with the skeletal remains representing Elizabeth (Triplett) Stewart who died in 1854 of pulmonary tuberculosis. This multidisciplinary research significantly contributes to the local history of Lexington, Missouri and provides a likely identification of the deceased individual for the Stewart Family.

Bone structure a b s t r a c t An improved understanding of bone mechanics is vital in the development of evaluation strategies for patients at risk of bone fracture. The current evaluation approach based on bone mineral density (BMD) measurements lacks sensitivity, and it has become clear that as well as bone mass, bone quality should also be evaluated. The latter includes, among other parameters, the bone matrix material properties, which in turn depend on the hierarchical structural features that make up bone as well as their composition. Optimal load transfer, energy dissipation and toughening mechanisms have, to some extent, been uncovered in bone. Yet, the origin of these properties and their dependence upon the hierarchical structure and composition of bone are largely unknown. Here we investigate load transfer in the osteonal and sub-osteonal levels and the mechanical behaviour of osteonal lamellae and interlamellar areas during loading. Using cantilever-based nanoindentation, in situ microtensile testing during atomic force microscopy (AFM) and digital image correlation (DIC), we report evidence for a previously unknown mechanism. This mechanism transfers load and movement in a manner analogous to the engineered ''elastomeric bearing pads'' used in large engineering structures. m-RAMAN microscopy investigations showed compositional differences between lamellae and interlamellar areas. The latter have lower collagen content but an increased concentration of noncollagenous proteins (NCPs). Hence, NC-enriched areas on the microscale might be similarly important for bone failure as ones on the nanoscale. Finally, we managed to capture stable crack propagation within the interlamellar areas in a time-lapsed fashion, proving their significant contribution towards fracture toughness. (P.J. Thurner). j o u r n a l o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l b e h a v i o r o f b i o m e d i c a l m a t e r i a l s 1 7 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 1 5 2 -1 6 5

The vertebrate skull evolved to protect the brain and sense organs, but with the appearance of jaws and associated forces there was a remarkable structural diversification. This suggests that the evolution of skull form may be linked to these forces, but an important area of debate is whether bone in the skull is minimised with respect to these forces, or whether skulls are mechanically “over-designed” and constrained by phylogeny and development. Mechanical analysis of diapsid reptile skulls could shed light on this longstanding debate. Compared to those of mammals, the skulls of many extant and extinct diapsids comprise an open framework of fenestrae (window-like openings) separated by bony struts (e.g., lizards, tuatara, dinosaurs and crocodiles), a cranial form thought to be strongly linked to feeding forces. We investigated this link by utilising the powerful engineering approach of multibody dynamics analysis to predict the physiological forces acting on the skull of the diapsid reptile Sphenodon. We then ran a series of structural finite element analyses to assess the correlation between bone strain and skull form. With comprehensive loading we found that the distribution of peak von Mises strains was particularly uniform throughout the skull, although specific regions were dominated by tensile strains while others were dominated by compressive strains. Our analyses suggest that the frame-like skulls of diapsid reptiles are probably optimally formed (mechanically ideal: sufficient strength with the minimal amount of bone) with respect to functional forces; they are efficient in terms of having minimal bone volume, minimal weight, and also minimal energy demands in maintenance.

Experimental studies have shown that primary osteoporosis caused by oestrogen-deficiency results in localised alterations in bone tissue properties and mineral composition. Additionally, changes to the lacunar-canalicular architecture surrounding the mechanosensitive osteocyte have been observed in animal models of the disease. Recently, it has also been demonstrated that the mechanical stimulation sensed by osteocytes changes significantly during osteoporosis. Specifically, it was shown osteoporotic bone cells experience higher maximum strains than healthy bone cells after short durations of oestrogen deficiency. However, in long-term oestrogen deficiency there was no significant difference between bone cells in healthy and normal bone. The mechanisms by which these changes arise are unknown. In this study, we test the hypothesis that complex changes in tissue composition and lacunar-canalicular architecture during osteoporosis alter the mechanical stimulation of the osteocyte. The objective of this research is to employ computational methods to investigate the relationship between changes in bone tissue composition and microstructure and the mechanical stimulation of osteocytes during osteoporosis. By simulating physiological loading, it was observed that an initial decrease in tissue stiffness (of 0.425 GPa) and mineral content (of 0.66 wt% Ca) relative to controls could explain the mechanical stimulation observed at the early stages of oestrogen deficiency (5 weeks post-OVX) during in situ bone cell loading in an oestrogen-deficient rat model of post-menopausal osteoporosis (Verbruggen et al. 2015). Moreover, it was found that a later increase in stiffness (of 1.175 GPa) and mineral content (of 1.64 wt% Ca) during long-term osteoporosis (34 weeks post-OVX), could explain the mechanical stimuli previously observed at a later time point due to the progression of osteoporosis. Furthermore, changes in canalicular tortuosity arising during osteoporosis were shown to result in increased osteogenic strain stimulation, though to a lesser extent than has been observed experimentally. The findings of this study indicate that changes in the extracellular environment during osteoporosis, arising from altered mineralisation and lacunar-canalicular architecture, lead to altered mechanical stimulation of osteocytes, and provide an enhanced understanding of changes in bone mechanobiology during osteoporosis.

— Bone material is heterogeneous and anisotropic in nature. It also has a hierarchical structure that changes from nano-scale to macro-scale. Bone material contains good amount of non linearity during deformation. This nonlinearity may be due to several toughening mechanisms and presence of water in the bone material. Many researchers used critical stress intensity factor, critical energy released rate and crack growth-resistance curve approaches based on linear elastic fracture mechanics to examine toughness of bone. These approaches are inadequate to characterize fracture in presence of substantial nonlinearity preceding fracture. Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) approach based on elastic-plastic fracture mechanics has been applied in the present work to provide an estimate of fracture toughness of buffalo cortical bone for longitudinal as well as transverse orientation of cracking. The elastic modulus and yield strength of buffalo bone are also evaluated for the transverse as well as longitudinal orientation of loading and compared with the values available in the literature. The average CTOD toughness (δ c) for transverse orientation was found to be 63 μm, which is 61% more than that of longitudinal orientation of cracking (39 μm). The equivalent K-fracture toughness values obtained from the δ c values in case of transverse orientation (12.68 MPa.m 1/2) was found to be 141% more than that of longitudinal orientation of cracking (5.26 MPa.m 1/2). The J-toughness values are calculated employing the corresponding δ c values in the two orientation of cracking and compared with the values of J-toughness available in the literature. It is suggested that the CTOD (δ c) and J-toughness are better parameters to predict the realistic fracture resistance of bone.

Water that is bound to bone's matrix is implied as a predictor of fracture resistance; however, bound water is an elusive variable to be measured nondestructively. To date, the only nondestructive method used for studying bone hydration status is magnetic resonance variants (NMR or MRI). For the first time, bone hydration status was studied by short-wave infrared (SWIR) Raman spectroscopy to investigate associations of mineral-bound and collagen-bound water compartments with mechanical properties. Thirty cortical bone samples were used for quantitative Raman-based water analysis, gravimetric analysis, porosity measurement, and biomechanical testing. A sequential dehydration protocol was developed to replace unbound (heat drying) and bound (ethanol treatment) water in bone. Raman spectra were collected serially to track the OH-stretch band during dehydration. Four previously identified peaks were investigated: I3220/I2949, I3325/I2949 and I3453/I2949 reflect status of organic-matrix related water (mostly collagen-related water) compartments and collagen portion of bone while I3584/I2949 reflects status of mineral-related water compartments and mineral portion of bone. These spectroscopic biomarkers were correlated with elastic and post-yield mechanical properties of bone. Collagen–water related biomarkers (I3220/I2949 and I3325/I2949) correlated significantly and positively with toughness (R2 = 0.81 and R2 = 0.79; p < 0.001) and post-yield toughness (R2 = 0.65 and R2 = 0.73; p < 0.001). Mineral-water related biomarker correlated significantly and negatively with elastic modulus (R2 = 0.78; p < 0.001) and positively with strength (R2 = 0.46; p < 0.001). While MR-based techniques have been useful in measuring unbound and bound water, this is the first study which probed bound-water compartments differentially for collagen and mineral-bound water. For the first time, we showed an evidence for contributions of different bound-water compartments to mechanical properties of wet bone and the reported correlations of Raman-based water measurements to mechanical properties underline the necessity for enabling approaches to assess these new biomarkers noninvasively in vivo to improve the current diagnosis of those who may be at risk of bone fracture due to aging and diseases.

"Anthropologists require methods for accurately estimating stature and body mass from the human
skeleton. Age-structured, generalized Least Squares (LS) regression formulas have been developed to
predict stature from femoral length and to predict body mass in immature human remains using the
width of the distal metaphysis, midshaft femoral geometry (J), and femoral head diameter. This paper
tests the hypothesis that panel regression is an appropriate statistical method for regression modeling of
longitudinal growth data, with longitudinal and cross-sectional effects on variance. Reference data were
derived from the Denver Growth Study; panel regression was used to create one formula for estimating
stature (for individuals 0.5e11.5 years old); two formulas for estimating body mass from the femur in
infants and children (0.5e12.5 years old); and one formula for estimating body mass from the femoral
head in older subadults (7e17 years old). The formulas were applied to an independent target sample
of cadavers from Franklin County, Ohio and a large sample of immature individuals from diverse global
populations. Results indicate panel regression formulas accurately estimate stature and body mass in
immature skeletons, without reference to an independent estimate for age at death. Thus, using panel
regression formulas to estimate stature and body mass in forensic and archaeological specimens may
reduce second stage errors associated with inaccurate age estimates."

"Cheiridia are valuable indicators of positional behavior, as they directly contact the substrate, but systematic comparison
of the structural properties of both metacarpals and metatarsals has never been carried out. Differences in
locomotor behavior among the great apes (knuckle-walking vs. quadrumanous climbing) can produce biomechanical
differences that may be elucidated by the parallel study of cross-sectional characteristics of metacarpals and metatarsals.
The aim of this work is to study the cross-sectional geometric properties of these bones and their correlation with
locomotor behavior in large-bodied hominoids. The comparisons between bending moments of metacarpals and metatarsals of the same ray furnished interesting results. Metacarpals III and especially IV of the knuckle-walking African apes were relatively stronger than those of humans and orangutans, and metatarsal V of humans was relatively stronger than those of the great apes. Interestingly, the relative robusticity of the metacarpal IV of the quadrumanous orangutan was between that of the African apes and that of humans. The main conclusions of the study are: 1) cross-sectional dimensions of metacarpals and metatarsals are influenced by locomotor modes in great apes and humans; 2) interlimb comparisons of cross-sectional properties of metacarpals and metatarsals are good indicators of locomotor modes in great apes and humans; and 3) the results of this study are in accord with those of previous analyses of plantar pressure and morphofunctional traits of the same bones, and with behavioral studies. These results provide a data base from
which it will be possible to compare the morphology of the fossils in order to gain insight into the locomotor repertoires
of extinct taxa."

Mineralized collagen fibrils (MCFs) are distinct building blocks for bone material and perform an important mechanical function. A novel experimental technique using combined atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy is used to manipulate and measure the mechanical properties of individual MCFs from antler, which is a representative bone tissue. The recorded stress–strain response of individual MCFs under tension shows an initial linear deformation region for all fibrils, followed by inhomogeneous deformation above a critical strain. This inhomogeneous deformation is indicative of fibrils exhibiting either yield or strain hardening and suggests possible mineral compositional changes within each fibril. A phenomenological model is used to describe the fibril nano-mechanical behaviour.

The recent reports of atypical femoral fracture (AFF) and its possible association with prolonged bisphosphonate (BP) use highlighted the importance of a thorough understanding of mechanical modifications in bone due to bisphosphonate treatment. The reduced compositional heterogeneity is one of the modifications in bone due to extensive suppression of bone turnover. Although experimental evaluations suggested that compositional changes lead to a reduction in the heterogeneity of elastic properties, there is limited information on the extent of influence of reduced heterogeneity on fracture resistance of cortical bone. As a result, the goal of the current study is to evaluate the influence of varying the number of unique elastic and fracture properties for osteons, interstitial bone, and cement lines on fracture resistance across seven different human cortical bone specimens using finite element modeling. Fracture resistance of seven human cortical bone samples under homogeneous and three different heterogeneous material levels was evaluated using a compact tension test setup. The simulation results predicted that the crack volume was the highest for the models with homogeneous material properties. Increasing heterogeneity resulted in a lower amount of crack volume indicating an increase in fracture resistance of cortical bone. This reduction was observed up to a certain level of heterogeneity after which further beneficial effects of heterogeneity diminished suggesting a possible optimum level of heterogeneity for the bone tissue. The homogeneous models demonstrated limited areas of damage with extensive crack formation. On the other hand, the heterogeneity in the material properties led to increased damage volume and a more variable distribution of damage compared to the homogeneous models. This resulted in uncracked regions which tended to have less damage accumulation preventing extensive crack propagation. The results also showed that the percent osteonal area was inversely correlated with crack volume and more evenly distributed osteons led to a lower amount of crack growth for all levels of material heterogeneity. In summary, this study developed a new computational modeling approach that directly evaluated the influence of heterogeneity in elastic and fracture material properties on fracture resistance of cortical bone. The results established new information that showed the adverse effects of reduced heterogeneity on fracture resistance in cortical bone and demonstrated the nonlinear relationship between heterogeneity and fracture resistance. This new computational modeling approach provides a tool that can be used to improve the understanding of the effects of material level changes due to prolonged BP use on the overall bone fracture behavior. It may also bring additional insight into the causes of unusual fractures, such as AFF and their possible association with long term BP use.

It is often not possible to machine human or animal tissue, such as bone, in a typical engineering workshop due to the numerous health risks associated. Further to this, currently used synthetic substitutes are also unsuitable for machining. This is mainly due to the aerosolization of harmful particles created during the machining process. It is however essential to thoroughly test and evaluate emerging orthopedic cutting tool designs, particularly when considering that osteonecrosis occurs at as low as 47 °C cutting temperature. It is proposed here that a composite bone model can be constructed using a dense hardwood to represent the hard cortical bone outer shell, and a less dense softwood to represent the spongy cancellous bone interior.

Bone geometry is commonly measured on computed tomographic (CT) and X-ray microtomographic (μCT) images. We obtained hundreds of CT, μCT and synchrotron μCT images of bones from diverse species that needed to be analysed remote from scanning hardware, but found that available software solutions were expensive, inflexible or methodologically opaque. We implemented standard bone measurements in a novel ImageJ plugin, BoneJ, with which we analysed trabecular bone, whole bones and osteocyte lacunae. BoneJ is open source and free for anyone to download, use, modify and distribute.

Various pathologies that lead to bone gaps of are difficult to manage and each presentation may require an individualized protocol of management. In the present case, the compound wedge fracture was initially sub-optimally managed leading to more complications, non-union, large collection of sequestrum and sepsis. This unique case required a complex management and salvage of the limb without damaging vital relations such as the nerves, muscles and blood vessels. After thorough assessment, a distraction osteogenesis procedure was recommended to restore the limb functions.