Anatomy and Physiology

Introduction: Ageing is associated with decrease in the efficacy of various physiological homeostatic mechanisms as well as increase in co-morbidities and functional disabilities. The classical symptoms of diabetes are not always apparent in older people. Elderly patients have particular needs that differ from those of younger patients with the same conditions. There are varying statistics in different age groups but no comparative studies have been done from this region. Objectives: The objective of this study was to compare the clinical and biochemical profile of geriatric (≥60yrs) and non-geriatric (<60yrs) diabetic patients. Materials and Method: This study population included 150 patients diagnosed with diabetes attending Out Patient Department and admitted as In-Patient in Central Referral Hospital, Sikkim. After obtaining approval from IEC and taking a written informed consent, data was collected. Thorough clinical examination was done and necessary investigations were car...

Aims: To study the effect of body compositions such as BMI, waist hip ratio, body fat composition on lung
function and also to correlate any changes with gender difference.
Materials and Methods: A total of 164 medical students aged 18-23 years were taken into study. Height,
weight, waist hip ratio (WtHR), Body M ass Index (BMI), were recorded. Body fat composition was
analysed using Omron Karada scan – body composition monitor model HBF- 375. Vital capacity was
estimated using spirometer. Data was analyzed statistically by using SPSS 20.0 software.
Results: Lung function assessed as vital capacity index (VCI) was negatively correlated (r<0;p<0.05)
with VAT, SAT, BMI, WtHR, BFP for both male and females. Body anthropometric measurements like
waist to hip ratio(WtHR), BMI and lung function tests like vital cap a city index (VCI) are more in males.
Where as females have higher body fat percentage (BFP). and Subcutaneous.adipose tissue (ScAT). There
was no much significant difference in Intra abdominal adipose tissue(IAAT) in males and females.
Conclusion: There was a inverse correlation between lung function with fat accumulation in the body.

Introduction: Radial head prosthesis is a valuable option in patients with radial head and neck fractures who require radial head replacement. Neck shaft angle (NSA) is an important morphometric measurement for stem design of radial head prosthesis in head and neck fractures to enable adequate movements of forearm following post operative management. Aims and Objectives: a) To estimate neck shaft angle of proximal end of right and left radii. b) To compare neck shaft angle of proximal end of right and left radii. Materials and Method: Digital photographs of posterior surface of all 142(71 left & 71 right) radii were taken. Lines were drawn using Microsoft power point software. Image was saved as a picture and opened with Image J analyser which measured neck shaft angle. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS. Results: The mean neck shaft angle was 168.01±3.65°. Right side was 165.67±4.44° and left side was 168.01±3.65°. There was significant difference between left and right side values of neck shaft angle. Conclusion: Mean values of neck shaft angle were comparable with previous studies. Side difference should be considered while implanting prosthesis on affected side.

Introduction: Needle phobia, clinically termed as belonephobia is a sub-type of blood-injury-injection phobia (BII phobia). Heightened sensitivity to experimentally induced pain, clinical pain and pain-related distress is greater in women compared with men. In reproductive age women gonadal hormone levels also have a substantial impact on pain perception and analgesic response. So, this study was conducted with the objective to compare any difference in pain and symptoms felt by males and females after pricking with hypodermic needles.
Materials and Methods: This longitudinal study was conducted in hematology laboratory of physiology department. A total of 216 subjects (120 females and 96 males) in the age group of 18 to 23 years were selected. The participants were asked to fill up the questionnaire based on pain and phobia associated with fingerpricking on first and tenth exposure with hypodermic needle. Assessment of pain was done by rating on numerical pain rating scale (NPRS).
Results: Females reported more fear of pain due to fingerprick compared to males (68.3% vs 49%, P<0.05). On first exposure with needle, females reported symptoms of sweaty, palpitations and dizziness significantly more than males (P<0.05). On tenth exposure, shortness of breath was more in males than females (5.2% vs 0.8%) but, there was no significant association in any other symptom between males and females. On tenth exposure, there was increase in mild grade of pain score and reduction in moderate and severe grade on NPRS (P<0.001) in both groups and significant reduction was more in females than males (P=0.01).
Conclusion: It was concluded that females were more needle phobics than males and with subsequent exposures, i.e., on 10th exposure with hypodermic needle there was reduction in pain and symptoms after finger-prick in both groups. Also, female students need more assistance during pricking.

Background: Radiologic imaging is increasingly utilized as supplemental material in preclinical gross anatomy courses, but few studies have investigated its utility as a fully integrated instructional tool. Aims: Establish the benefit of a teaching method that simultaneously correlates cadaveric and radiologic structures for learning human anatomy. Method: We performed a mixed-methods randomized controlled trial and one-way cross-over study comparing exam grades and subjective student perception in a gross anatomy course. The intervention consisted of daily direct correlation small group sessions in which students simultaneously identified and correlated radiologic and cadaveric structures. The control method utilized identical laboratory and teaching conditions but students did not simultaneously correlate structures. Spatial relationships of structures within each respective media (gross or radiologic) were emphasized in both groups. Results: No significant differences in radiology, gross, or written exam scores were observed between the intervention and control groups. The cross-over group preferred the intervention and control methods equally. The correlation teaching sessions ranked equally with active dissection as the most important instructional components of the course. Conclusion: Direct, simultaneous correlation of radiologic and cadaveric structures did not affect exam scores or student preference but helped students understand anatomical concepts in comparison with other course components.

Introduction: Menopause is permanent cessation of menstruation. After menopause primordial follicles become atretic, hence ovaries fail to produce estrogen. The presence of estrogen receptors in the heart, vascular smooth muscles and autonomic brain stem centers denotes role in regulation of cardiovascular system. Aims and Objectives: To compare the sympathetic function tests in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Materials and Method: The autonomic function tests in 60 premenopausal and 60 postmenopausal women were compared. Parameters under study were Height, Weight, BMI, Sympathetic function test: Orthostatic tolerance test and Sustained isometric hand grip test. Result: We found significant increase in BMI (P<0.05) and blood pressure during Sustained isometric hand grip test (P<0.05) while there was significant change in Orthostatic tolerance test when compared between premenopausal and postmenopausal. Discussion: Estrogen acts on pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons, regulate their cellular activity through estrogen receptor, and suppress food intake. Also decline in the estrogen levels shifts the autonomic balance toward the sympathetic dominance in the postmenopausal women. Conclusion: We conclude that there is increased tendency of obesity, autonomic imbalance with sympathetic over activity in postmenopausal women as compared to premenopausal women.

BACKGROUND:
In spite of its indusrial usefulness and varied daily uses, lead (Pb) pollution is a widespread ecological problem that faces the humans in the 21th century. Pb was found to produces a wide range of toxic effects including neurotoxicity especially to the developing and young offspring. Recently, the utilization of herbal plants has received a significant attention where there has been rising awareness in their therapeutic use; among these is the garlic.
AIM OF THE WORK:
In light of the above, the current study is designed experimentally in female pregnant rats in order to investigate the beneficial role of garlic extract in the protection from the maternal and fetal cerebellar damage that produced by administration of different doses of Pb during pregnancy.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Positively pregnant female rats were divided into five groups; one control group, two Pb-treated groups (exposed to 160 and 320 mg/kg b.wt. of Pb, respectively) and two groups treated with both Pb and garlic (exposed to Pb as previous groups together with 250 mg/ kg b.wt. /day of garlic extract). Treatments started from day 1 till day 20 of pregnancy, where the mother rats of different experimental groups were sacrified to obtain the fetuses. Pb level in the maternal nd fetal blood and cerebellum was estimated by spectrophotometry. Specimens of the cerebellum of different mother and fetal groups were processed to histological and immunohistochemical staining for microscopic examination.
RESULTS:
The results showed that administration of Pb to pregnant rats resulted in a dose-dependent toxicity for both mothers and fetuses in the form of decrease of maternal weight gain, placental and fetal weights, brain weight and diminished fetal growth parameters, which were prominent in rat's group treated with larger dose of Pb. In Pb-treated rats, Pb level in blood and cerebellum was high when compared to the control. The histopathological examination of the cerebellum of treated dams and fetuses showed marked alterations mainly in the form of Purkinje cell degeneration and lack of deveopmet of fetal cerebellum. Co-treatment of garlic extract along with Pb resulted in a significant decrease in Pb levels as compared with those treated with Pb alone with improvement of the histopathological changes.
CONCLUSIONS:
This study was useful in evaluating the hazardous effects of uncontrolled use of Pb in general and in assessing the developmental and neurotoxicity of fetuses due to exposure during pregnancy in particular. Co-administration of garlic has beneficial effects in amelioration of Pb-induced neurotoxicity and reversing the histopathological changes of the cerebellum of mother rats and fetuses.
KEYWORDS:
garlic; glial fibrillary acidic protein; lead; purkinje cells

Introduction: The Vision 2015 of Medical Council of India states that the Indian medical graduate (IMG) should have the necessary competencies (Knowledge, Skills and Attitude) to assume his or her role as a health care provider to the people of India and the World. Early Clinical Exposure (ECE) is one of the measures taken by MCI to enact its vision.
Objectives: This study was aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of ECE in learning clinical examination skills among preclinical students and to explore the perspectives of ECE among the students and faculty.
Materials and Methods: Present study was conducted in the department of Physiology, Govt. Thiruvarur Medical College, Thiruvarur on 99 medical students. After obtaining informed, written consent pretest questionnaire was given to the study participants. After obtaining informed, written consent pre-test questionnaire was given to the study participants. After that students were allocated into Group 1 (n=49) and Group 2 (n=50) by simple random technique by lottery method. Group 1 students were trained on clinical examination of anemia in medicine ward (Early Clinical Exposure) and Group 2 students were trained on clinical examination of anemia in clinical physiology laboratory (Control). At the end of the session both groups were assessed by Post-test questionnaire and Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE). Crossing over of the batches was done in the next session for training of clinical examination of jaundice. Feedback was obtained from the students (n=99) and faculty members involved in this (n=7).
Results: There was a statistically significant difference present between the post test scores of Group 1 and Group 2 in anemia and jaundice (p<0.01, p<0.001) respectively. Also there was a statistically significant difference present between Group 1 and Group 2 on OSCE scores in anemia and jaundice (p<0.01 & p<0.01 respectively).

Introduction: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) is represented by somatic traits of genetic factors like dermatoglyphic patterns. There is a rising incidence of DM2, requiring simple means to identify predisposition to DM2.
Materials and Methods: The study comprised 75 male and 75 female patients of DM2, with positive family history of diabetes, 75 male and 75 female nondiabetics as controls, with no family history of diabetes. The prints were recorded by the Ink Method and analyzed for qualitative and quantitative parameters.
Results: Diabetics of both sexes showed a significantly higher incidence of spiral whorls in both hands except L2, R1 and R4 of male cases and L1 and R5 of females, and nondiabetics of both sexes showed a higher incidence of loops in both hands. Fingertip ridge counts were significantly higher in diabetics of both sexes, except L2 and R1 in males and R5 in females. In males, pattern intensity, TFRC, AFRC and MFRC of both hands were significantly higher in diabetics. In females, the pattern intensity, AFRC, MFRC of both hands and TFRC of the right hand were significantly higher in diabetics. The left hypothenar area showed a significantly higher incidence of open fields in female nondiabetics .The right fourth interdigital area showed significantly higher incidence of open fields in female diabetics. The scores for a-b ridge count, atd angle, distal deviation of t, breadth ratio and main-line index were not statistically significant.
Conclusion: Dermatoglyphics can be used for early and inexpensive screening of individuals at risk for DM2.

We get up in the mornings to the bright glow of our phones acting as alarm clock and probably bid good night to the phone screen by checking WhatsApp messages or facebook updates Demands of the modern society put us in front of the digital screens for long hours resulting in many of us having eye strain, fatigue, headache, blurred vision, watering, redness in eyes along with many musculoskeletal complaints like neck pain, back pain, stiffness or pain in wrist etc. These symptoms collectively constitute the computer vision syndrome.
Objective: The aim of the present study was to find the magnitude and severity of dry eye disease amongst young medical graduates who spend good amount of time on the digital screens.
Materials and Methods: This is a cross sectional analytic study which was conducted on 100 undergraduate medical students at the department of Physiology, Government Medical college, Srinagar, after approval from the institutional ethical committee. Informed oral consent was taken from the participants and then a pre validated questionnaire was distributed amongst them. Subsequently Schirmers test was performed on all the participants. Statistical analysis was done using Pearson chi square test.
Result: The prevalence rate of dry eye in the study population is 55.6%. Our results show that increased duration of usage of digital screens increases the risk of dry eye. Eye strain /fatigue was the most common symptom reported by 53 subjects (58.8%) followed by headache (23.3%) followed by blurring of vision. 37% of the students had never heard of dry eye whereas 53% had some knowledge about it. 62% of the students believed that digital screen exposure affects their lifestyle Majority of the students (75%) were willing to reduce their screen time as a preventive measure towards dry eye.
Conclusion: Wearing computer eyewear, looking away from the screen periodically, reducing the brightness of the device, increasing conscious blinking are some of the steps that help protect our eyes from the ill effects of technology.

Introduction: Psychosocial stress of our modern life precipitates various cardiovascular and other
disorders by distorting basic neuroendocrine mechanism and thus autonomic nervous system. The harmful
effects of these stress on bodily systems can be reduced effectively by enhancing the adaptive mechanisms
of our body that can restore the equilibrium. By giving rest to the mind and body, yoga can shake off many
disorders of psychosocial origin.
Aims and Objectives: 1: To evaluate the effects of yoga on parasympathetic nervous system in yoga
practitioners above the age group of 35 years; 2: To compare the results of parasympathetic function tests
in yoga practitioners with that of non yoga practitioners in the same age group.
Materials and Methods: An observational cross sectional study was carried out in 50 normal yoga
practitioners and 50 normal non yoga practitioners above the age group of 35 years. Yoga practitioners were
selected randomly from different yoga centers in Shimoga. Non yoga practitioners were selected randomly
among non teaching staff of Shimoga institute of medical sciences, Shimoga. The ethical clearance for the
study was obtained from the ethical committee.
Results: In our study, there is significant decrease in the BMI (p=0.013), physiological parameters such
as heart rate (p=0.002), respiratory rate (p=0.001) and blood pressure and in parasympathetic tests there is
significant decrease in valsalva ratio (p=0.005) in yoga practitioners compared to non yoga practitioners.
Conclusion: Observations from our study suggest that regular practice of yoga can bring significant
improvement in the autonomic balance, respiratory performance and wellbeing. It can thus be concluded
that these results would justify the incorporation of yoga as part of lifestyle in prevention of hyper-reactivity
to stress related disorders and age related cardiovascular complications.

Scientists from Germany, England, India, Australia and UAE have published books on camel. These are, of course, good books
but as usual their prices are prohibitive for our students, extension workers and even for teachers. Moreover, these books contain
a little information about camels in Pakistan. Therefore, an easy-to-understand book on ‘Production and Management of Camels’
using a question-answer format, has been compiled. This should provide ready-made answers to so many questions simmering in
the minds of students, teachers, researchers and extension specialists. It embodies about 400 questions along with their answers.
The book discusses the distribution of camels in different continents/countries, breeds and types of camels with cross reference to
other species, nutritional physiology and reproductive management, the way camels adapt to hot arid environment, milk and meat
production and work performance, practical management and training of camels, marketing, health care and some diseases,
including valuable information on several other aspects. Camel breeds and camel raising practices in Pakistan have been
adequately discussed.

Este año festejamos el bicentenario del nacimiento de Charles Darwin y con él, uno de los más importantes y valientes logros del pensamiento humano, la teoría de la evolución biológica. El origen y la historia de la vida son parte de toda cosmovisión y por ello, la teoría darwinista se ha convertido en un elemento fundamental de cualquier forma y nivel de educación científica y ha adquirido así enorme relevancia social. La teoría de la evolución integra el conocimiento biológico y tiene aplicaciones en cualquier campo relacionado con los seres vivos como la conservación de la biosfera, la agricultura, la cría de animales y la medicina. Es común que cuando por primera vez se comprenden los principios básicos de la teoría de Darwin, de súbito se aprecia en forma intensa la belleza de la vida en nuestro planeta, se siente uno mismo parte íntima de la naturaleza y se experimenta una liberación total de cuerpo, mente y espíritu. La teoría de la evolución se nos aparece así como un poema o un árbol fraterno, pero conforme se estudia en sus detalles y se recorren sus proclamadas vías integradoras de la biología, el andamiaje científico formal se muestra difícil, confuso e incluso contradictorio, limitado, imperfecto y con mucho por resolver. Por este motivo, la teoría de la evolución es atacada continuamente por todas las fuerzas del oscurantismo y sus vulgarizadores a menudo la hacen tropezar ante la sociedad.

Introduction: Surgical specialty requires adequate exposure of training and enormous practice of surgical
skills to become successful. Moreover, surgeons have to be familiar with day to day trending newer
developments and surgical techniques. For exclusive surgical training in surgical methods, the current
adopted approach is surgical skills training (SST) on cadavers. Even though live animals and low and high
fidelity simulators are used for SST, the overall outcome is in low profile with high cost and compromised
anatomic fidelity, compared to embalmed cadavers. Within the available methods for embalming cadavers,
formalin solution method (FAS) embalmed cadavers are seldom used for SST, Thiel’s solution method (TS)
is costly, and saturated salt solution method (SSS) is preferred nowadays.
Materials and Methods: It is a descriptive study for a period of six months in the formalin solution (FAS)
embalmed and modified saturated salt solution (MSSS) method of embalmed cadavers. Human donated
corpses with intact skin and organs of the body with acceptable appearance were included. The corpses with
breached skin, external injures and unacceptable appearances were excluded from the study. Two corpses
embalmed were by MSSS, assessed for skin color, pliability and suppleness of the soft tissue by visual
and tactile assessment, range of movements and the results are compared with two formalin solution(FAS)
embalmed cadavers. The data were analyzed by SPSS26 and excel 2007 software.
Implications: MSSS method is useful, cost effective and comfortable embalming technique for surgical
skills training.

Introduction: Video-gaming has become one of the most preferred leisure activities among adolescents,
with prevalence rate being as high as 75% in some of the industrialized countries. Video games provide
a ‘virtual world’ where the gamer can seek challenges and thrills in a safe way and fulfill his need for
adventure and excitement. The popularity of video-games has raised concern over their possible impact on
the physical, mental and emotional well being of an individual.
Aims and Objectives: The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of video-games on academic
performance and sleep duration in medical students.
Materials and Methods: The present study was conducted in GIMS, Gadag, after being cleared by
the Ethical committee. Fifty healthy male medical students who regularly played video-games acted as
subjects, and fifty age and gender matched students were controls. Information related to duration of
video-gaming, sleep duration and academic performance was assessed using comprehensive questionnaire.
Comparison between the groups was done using students t-test. Correlation between duration of videogaming
with academic performance and sleep duration in the subjects was assessed using Pearson’s
correlation. Effect size was calculated.
Results: In students, who regularly played video games, the academic performance was less and the
duration of sleep was more, when compared to the students who didn’t play videogames. The difference
was statistically significant (P < 0.05).
Conclusion: Video-games have a negative effect on academic performance in medical students, and they
also seem to increase the duration and requirement of sleep.

Breve introducción (primer repaso fundamental) de algunos de los componentes principales que conforman el sistema nervioso, para entender su anatomía y fisiología como la unidad funcional que es.
Para estudiantes de medicina, biología y disciplinas afines. Puede utilizarse como guía de estudio del sistema nervioso -primer repaso fundamental-.

The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord are protected by bony structures, membranes, and fluid. The brain is held in the cranial cavity of the skull and it consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and the brain stem. The nerves involved are cranial nerves and spinal nerves.

The overall purpose of this preparatory course textbook is to help students familiarize with some terms and some basic concepts they will find later in the Human Anatomy and Physiology I course.

The organization and functioning of the human organism generally is discussed in terms of different levels of increasing complexity, from the smallest building blocks to the entire body. This Anatomy and Physiology preparatory course covers the foundations on the chemical level, and a basic introduction to cellular level, organ level, and organ system levels. There is also an introduction to homeostasis at the beginning.

Sekitar 40% dari tubuh manusia terdiri dari otot skeletal, dimana sisanya adalah 10% otot halus dan otot jantung. Beberapa prinsip dasar dari kontraksi berlaku untuk semua jenis otot. Otot skeletal terdiri dari banyak serat yang ukuran diameternya 10 sampai 80 mikrometer. Di sebagian besar otot rangka, setiap serat panjangnya meluas pada otot skeletal. Kecuali untuk 2% dari serat. Masing-masing serat biasanya mempunyai satu saraf, yang berada dekat dengan otot serat. (Guyton and Hall, 11th edition 2006)
Setiap motoneuron yang tidak berada di sumsum tulang belakang terhubung dengan otot serabut. Semua saraf otot serabut berasal dari satu saraf serabut yang disebut motor unit. Saraf motorik dan otot serat berpotongan di persimpangan neuromuscular. Khususnya, persimpangan neuromuscular adalah lokasi dimana pusat akson dari neuron memenuhi wilayah khusus dari membrane plasma otot serat ini. Daerah khusus ini disebut lempeng akhir motorik. (Guyton and Hall, 11th edition 2006)
Otot dapat berkontraksi baik secara isometrik, isotonik, atau gabungan keduanya. Kontraksi isometrik pada otot gastronekmus memiliki lama kontraksi kira-kira 1/30 detik. Lama kontraksi disesuaikan dengan fungsi masing-masing otot. Otot gastroknemus harus berkontraksi dengan kecepatan yang cukup pada pergerakan tungkai untuk berlari atau melompat. Otot gastroknemus memiliki serabut cepat yang disesuaikan untuk kontraksi otot yang sangat cepat dan kuatseperti berlari dan melompat. Serabut ini tampak lebih besar. Retikulum sarkoplasmanya lebih luas sehingga dengan cepat dapat melepaskan ion-ionkalsium untuk memulai kontraksi otot. (Guyton And Hall, 2006)
Mekanisme kontraksi otot dapat dijelaskan dengan model pergeseran filamen (filamen-filamen tebal dan tipis yang saling bergeser saat proses kontraksi), model pergeseran filamen (filamen sliding). Model ini menyatakanbahwa gaya berkontraksi otot dihasilkan oleh suatu proses yang membuat beberapa set filamen tebal dan tipis dapat bergeser antar sesamanya.

Diagrama de las principales estructuras musculares y otras tisulares del sistema muscular, asociadas a las extremidades superiores e inferiores. Clasificación anatómica y algunas relaciones fisiológicas asociadas. Recurso manual para Profesionales o Especialistas, Educadores y Estudiantes que lo encuentren de utilidad.

Otak besar mempunyai fungsi dalam pengaturan semua aktivitas mental, yaitu yang berkaitan dengan kepandaian (intelegensi), ingatan (memori), kesadaran, dan pertimbangan. Otak besar merupakan sumber dari semua kegiatan/gerakan sadar atau sesuai dengan kehendak, walaupun ada juga beberapa gerakan re eks otak. Pada bagian korteks serebrum yang berwarna kelabu terdapat bagian penerima rangsang (area sensor) yang terletak di sebelah belakang area motor yang berfungsi mengatur gerakan sadar atau merespon rangsangan.

Saluran pencernaan merupakan saluran yang menerima makanan dari luar dan mempersiapkannya untuk diserap oleh tubuh dengan jalan proses pencernaan (pengunyahan, penelanan, dan pencampuran) dengan enzim dan zat cairyang terbentang mulai dari mulut (oris) sampai anus. Dari saluran pencernaan akan terbentuk sistem pencernaan yang terdiri dari organ-organ pencernaan yang tergabung membentuk saluran pencernaan. saluran pencernaan tersebut terdiri dari Oris(mulut), Faring(tekak), Esofagus(kerongkongan) Ventrikulus(lambung), usus halus,usus besar, rektum, anus.

-Rhombensefalon (hindbrain) dan Mesensefalon (midbrain) Rhombensefalon dibagi jadi myelensefalon yang selanjutnya berkembang jadi medulla oblongata, dan metensefalon yang berkembang jadi pons dan serebellum. Sedangkan mesensefalon menjadi midbrain. Selanjutnya medulla oblongata, pons, dan midbrain membentuk brainstem yang dilindungi oleh tulang oksipital dan tulang sphenoid. Medulla oblongata ke arah caudal melanjutkan menjadi medulla spinalis yang melewati foramen magnum. Pons terletak melekat dengan medulla oblongata dan dibatasi oleh serabut saraf melintang yang menghubungkannya ke serebellum. Midbrain merupakan segmen pendek dari brainstem yang melekat dengan pons. -Prosensefalon (forebrain) Dibagi jadi diensefalon dan telensefalon. Diensefalon berkembang jadi thalamus, hipotalamus, epitalamus dan subtalamus. Sedangkan telensefalon berkembang jadi serebrum (2 hemisfer serebri). Permukaan hemisfer terdiri dari gyrus dan sulcus. Lapisan terluar berupa substansi grissea (korteks serebral) dan yang dalam substansi alba (medulla serebral). Antara hemisfer dextra dan sinistra dipisahkan oleh kommisura dan dihubungkan oleh corpus callosum.

Introduction: With modern life style, in the present environmental conditions the prevalence of prehypertension & hypertension is high and is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and cerebrovascular accidents. Deep breathing exercise is a useful non– pharmacological adjunct in lowering blood pressure and heart rate. Aim and Objective: To evaluate the effectiveness of deep breathing on blood pressure parameters in patients with prehypertension and hypertension. Materials and Method: The study group I comprised of 60 pre-hypertensive participants in the age group 30-50 years & group II with another 60 hypertensive patients attending NCD (non-communicable disease) clinic at Kanyakumari Govt. Medical College Hospital. Both the pre-hypertensive & hypertensive groups consist of a control group with 30 participants and experimental group with 30 participants. The experimental group participants were taught and insisted to practice deep breathing exercise regularly. The blood pressure and heart rate were monitored at 0, 4, 8, 12 week intervals in both the experimental and control group. Results: Data is analysed using paired and unpaired 't' test. A highly significant reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure was found in the experimental group compared with the control group individuals. Beneficial effect started to appear at 4 weeks. Conclusion: Regular practice of deep breathing exercise is effective in reducing systolic and diastolic blood pressure by enhancing parasympathetic activity and reducing sympathetic excitability.

Introduction: Respiratory muscles improve their function in response to training. Yogic exercises have the ability to enhance respiratory efficiency. Respiratory training techniques have consistently demonstrated positive outcomes in different respiratory conditions. Aim of the study is to know the effect of Bhastrika pranayama on respiratory muscle function in young adult males. Materials and Method: This study was conducted on 40 healthy adult male aged 18 to 23 years in Government Yoga & Naturopathy Medical College. Peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), Breath holding time (BHT) and 40 mmHg endurance were measured. Participants practiced Bhastrika pranayama 5 days a week for 45 days, 3 hours after lunch. After 45 days of regular practice, all the above parameters were reassessed. Results: The student paired 't' test was used to compare pre and post training values. Respiratory muscle strength, as indicated by parameters PEFR, BHT and 40 mm Hg endurance test increases significantly after the practice of Bhastrika Pranayama. Conclusion: Bhastrika Pranayama has beneficial effect on respiratory muscle function and is an effective yoga practice for college students.