3D Microscopy

***Věnováno památce numismatika Jána Hunky***

Studie se zabývá moravským denárem fenikového typu z doby vlády Přemysla Otakara II. (1253–1278), který byl v dosavadní literatuře uváděn jako jednostranná ražba – brakteát – Cach 1974, č. 962. Tři exempláře, nalezené v uplynulých letech, bezpečně prokazují, že se ve skutečnosti jedná o dvoustrannou ražbu. Zjevnou předlohou motivu na rubu mince je motiv z uherského denáru Huszár 264 raženého za vlády krále Ondřeje II. (1205–1235). Demonstrováno je praktické využití 3D mikroskopie, 3D zobrazovacích technik a 3D tisku pro studium numismatického materiálu. Diskutován je motiv znázorňující klasický starozákonní výjev Samsona, který holýma rukama trhá lví tlamu i některé ikonograficky příbuzné motivy – tedy motiv člověka, resp. boha zápasícího se zvířetem. Pozornost je věnována rovněž nedestruktivní analýze mincovní slitiny a snaze o zjištění, na jakém váhovém základu byla zkoumaná mince ražena.

The paper deals with the Moravian denarius of pfennig type from the time of the reign of Přemysl Otakar II (1253-1278), in the up-to-now literature mentioned as unilateral coin-bracteate-Cach 1974, No. 962. Three specimens found in the last years prove with certitude that in the reality their embossing is bilateral. The evident model of the motive on the coin reverse is the motive on the Hungarian denarius Huszár 264 minted during the reign of King Andreas II (1205-1235). The practical use of 3D microscopy, 3D imaging technologies and 3D print for the study of numismatic materials is demonstrated. The motive of the classical Old Testament scene of Samson ripping with bare hands the lion's mouth and some iconographically related motives-the motive of a man or god fighting with an animal-is discussed. Attention is also paid to the non-destructive analysis of the coin alloy and to the determination of the weight base used for minting the analysed coins.

Die Studie bewies, dass die Münze Cach 962, die bisher in der Fachliteratur als Brakteat bezeichnet worden war, in der Tatsache ein beidseitiger Denar des Pfennigtyps ist. Es konnte das Bildmotiv auf dem Revers dieser Münze eindeutig identifiziert werden – es handelt sich um das klassische Motiv aus dem Alten Testament, das Samson zeigt, der mit bloßen Händen das Löwenmaul zerreißt. Die ganz eindeutige Vorlage dieses Motivs stellt der ungarische Denar Huszár 264 dar, der unter der Regierung des Königs Andreas II. (1205–1235) geprägt wurde. Die Abbildung des Motivs eines Kämpfers mit Tier ist die erste Anwendung dieses auf böhmischen und mährischen Münzen des 12. Jahrhunderts häufigen Themas im nachfolgenden Jahrhundert. Die untersuchte Prägung kann anhand metrologischer Angaben in die Zeitspanne des Endes der 1250er bis Anfang der 1270er Jahre datiert werden. Den Fundumständen nach stammt dieser Denar ehestens aus der Brünner oder Iglauer Münze. Die durchgeführte hydrostatische Analyse zeigte, dass die Münze durch Korrosionsprozesse nur minimal beschädigt ist und dass nach kleinen Korrektionen von der festgestellten Dichte relativ genau und zuverlässig auf den ursprünglichen Feingehalt der Legierung geschlossen werden kann. Das ursprüngliche Gewicht der untersuchten Münze betrug ungefähr 0,577 g, das Gewicht des Silbers wurde auf 0,261 g festgelegt und der ursprüngliche Feingehalt machte daher cca 452/1000 aus. Unter der Vorausgesetzung, dass das mittelelterliche reine Silber (16 Lot) real den Feingehalt 938/1000 erreichte, kann gesagt werden, dass das untersuchte Exemplar ungefähr aus 7 ˝ bis 8 Lot-Silber geprägt wurde. Obwohl anhand der Analyse eines einzigen Exemplars keine weitgehenden Schlüsse gemacht werden können, doch wurden alle vorhandenen Informationen zusammengetragen zwecks der Beurteilung, aufs welchem grundgewicht die betreffende Münze geprägt worden war. Von allen zu erwägenden Alternativen entspricht der festgestellte Silbergehalt am besten dem mährischen leichten „Denarpfund“ von 196,5 g unter der Voraussetzung, dass aus einem Pfund 612 Münzen geprägt wurden. Der Unterschied im Silbergehalt (0,261 g gegenüber 0,301 g) kann sowohl der Prägungsweise al marco, als auch der Möglichkeit zugeschrieben werden, dass aus einem Pfund mehr als die angeführten 612 Münzen geprägt wurden (falls der angeführte Silbergehalt einen repräsentativen Wert darstellte, könnten aus einem Pfund mehr als 700 Müzen geprägt worden sein). Die oben angeführten Erwägungen über den Feingehalt des mährischen Denars von Pfennigtyp Cach 1974, Nr. 962 sowie die Überlegungen über das zu seiner Prägung verwendete Grundgewicht sind als Hypothese zu verstehen. Für eindeutige Schlüsse müsste man von einer statistisch bedeutenden Kollektion von gleich gut erhaltenen Exemplaren (ideal mindestens 20 bis 30 Stücken) herausgehen.

At the end of the Lower Palaeolithic and into the Middle Palaeolithic, Neanderthals inhabited northern France, and many archaeological sites preserve accumulations of various lithic industries, sometimes associated with bones. From a few sites, the faunal remains show traditional marks of anthropic activities linked with butchery, including skinning, dismembering, meat fi lleting and marrow extraction. Some bones also present surface modifi cations characteristic of utilisation as tools; these are called retouchers or retouchoirs. The oldest site, the Acheulean occupation at Cagny-l'Épinette (Somme), yielded only six retouchers. In comparison, the main collection of the Middle Palaeolithic site of Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais) contained 333 of these objects. Here, we also present new data on the retouchers from two more recent Middle Palaeo lithic sites: Le Rozel (Manche) and Mutzig (Bas-Rhin). A regional synthesis of previously published and un published archaeological materials allows for new insights into the functionality of bone retouchers from northern France. This study suggests a relative homogeneity and standardization in Neanderthal behaviour and bone tool utilization for tens of thousands of years, with some differences from site to site. Most retouchers were made from herbivore limb bone diaphyses, but also on brown bear at Biache-Saint-Vaast. At le Rozel, a red deer mandible was used as retoucher. The pattern of utilization of the bones is variable, ranging from only a few clustered scores to a huge loss of cortical bone material linked to intense activity, and sometimes with up to four use areas on the same bone. In this study, we explore the many factors that may account for these differences.

At the end of the Lower Palaeolithic and into the Middle Palaeolithic, Neanderthals inhabited northern France, and many archaeological sites preserve accumulations of various lithic industries, sometimes associated with bones. From a few sites, the faunal remains show traditional marks of anthropic activities linked with butchery, including skinning, dismembering, meat fi lleting and marrow extraction. Some bones also present surface modifi cations characteristic of utilisation as tools; these are called retouchers or retouchoirs. The oldest site, the Acheulean occupation at Cagny-l'Épinette (Somme), yielded only six retouchers. In comparison, the main collection of the Middle Palaeolithic site of Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais) contained 333 of these objects. Here, we also present new data on the retouchers from two more recent Middle Palaeo lithic sites: Le Rozel (Manche) and Mutzig (Bas-Rhin). A regional synthesis of previously published and un published archaeological materials allows for new insights into the functionality of bone retouchers from northern France. This study suggests a relative homogeneity and standardization in Neanderthal behaviour and bone tool utilization for tens of thousands of years, with some differences from site to site. Most retouchers were made from herbivore limb bone diaphyses, but also on brown bear at Biache-Saint-Vaast. At le Rozel, a red deer mandible was used as retoucher. The pattern of utilization of the bones is variable, ranging from only a few clustered scores to a huge loss of cortical bone material linked to intense activity, and sometimes with up to four use areas on the same bone. In this study, we explore the many factors that may account for these differences.

Digital technologies are an increasingly pervasive medium for zooarchaeological scholarship, providing a means to document and preserve fragile zooarchaeological specimens, share primary data, address methodological questions, and spread the information to the wider public. During the last decade, a broad array of digital technologies has been widely applied for the creation of three-dimensional images of animal bones, with a number of freely accessible collections being developed and published online. To be beneficial for academic and non-academic audiences, the creation of these collections requires careful planning, and more attention is needed in order to ensure their longevity in the web as well as their future usability. Drawing on an online workshop, organised by the Science and Technology in Archaeology and Culture Research Center of The Cyprus Institute, titled "Zooarchaeology in the Digital Era", this article aims to provide a snapshot of the current state of art, and the methods and digital tools being employed in the digitisation of animal remains. The article also raises some of the challenges that the international zooarchaeological community is facing in the era of Linked Open Data, including management, archiving, curation, storage, dissemination and communication of digital data to the scientific world and the wider public. In addition, the paper highlights the need for a stronger collaboration between archaeologists and researchers from the Digital Humanities' sector in order to stimulate an innovative discourse and create fertile ground for the production of new scientific knowledge.

The paper concerns the definition of a novel ontology for cultural heritage based on the concept of digital twin. The ontology, called Heritage Digital Twin ontology, is a compatible extension of the well-known CIDOC CRM ISO standard for cultural heritage documentation and incorporates all the different documentation systems presently in use for cultural heritage documentation. In the authors' view, it supports documentation interoperability at a higher level than the ones currently in use and enables effective cooperation among different users.

The Upper Palaeolithic is characterised by the appearance of iconographic expressions most often depicting animals, including anthropomorphic forms, and geometric signs. The Late Upper Palaeolithic Magdalenian saw a flourishing of such depictions, encompassing cave art, engraving of stone, bone and antler blanks and decoration of tools and weapons. Though Magdalenian settlement exists as far northwest as Britain, there is a limited range of art known from this region, possibly associated with only fleeting occupation of Britain during this period. Stone plaquettes, flat fragments of stone engraved on at least one surface, have been found in large quantities at numerous sites spanning the temporal and geographical spread of the Magdalenian, but they have been absent so far from the archaeological record of the British Isles. Between 2015 and 2018, ten fragments of stone plaquettes extensively engraved with abstract designs were uncovered at the Magdalenian site of Les Varines, Jersey, Channel Islands. In this paper, we report detailed analyses of these finds, which provide new evidence for technologies of abstract mark-making, and their significance within the lives of people on the edge of the Magdalenian world. These engraved stone fragments represent important, rare evidence of artistic expression in what is the far northern and western range of the Magdalenian and add new insight to the wider significance of dynamic practices of artistic expression during the Upper Palaeolithic.

The Upper Palaeolithic is characterised by the appearance of iconographic expressions most often depicting animals, including anthropomorphic forms, and geometric signs. The Late Upper Palaeolithic Magdalenian saw a flourishing of such depictions, encompassing cave art, engraving of stone, bone and antler blanks and decoration of tools and weapons. Though Magdalenian settlement exists as far northwest as Britain, there is a limited range of art known from this region, possibly associated with only fleeting occupation of Britain during this period. Stone plaquettes, flat fragments of stone engraved on at least one surface, have been found in large quantities at numerous sites spanning the temporal and geographical spread of the Magdalenian, but they have been absent so far from the archaeological record of the British Isles. Between 2015 and 2018, ten fragments of stone plaquettes extensively engraved with abstract designs were uncovered at the Magdalenian site of Les Varines, Jersey, Channel Islands. In this paper, we report detailed analyses of these finds, which provide new evidence for technologies of abstract mark-making, and their significance within the lives of people on the edge of the Magdalenian world. These engraved stone fragments represent important, rare evidence of artistic expression in what is the far northern and western range of the Magdalenian and add new insight to the wider significance of dynamic practices of artistic expression during the Upper Palaeolithic.

Summary - The Research Unit of Prehistoric Ecology of the University of Siena is testing the potentiality of a digital microscope that captures 3D images of the bone surface. The aim of this research is to develop new methods for understanding the origin of different bone modifications (e.g. scores, punctures, cut marks, chemical corrosion) using morphometry. It allows to find diagnostic criteria that can be processed through statistics, avoiding the exclusive use of subjective observations. In this paper different bone modifications have been analysed: cut marks produced during butchery experiments, modern tooth marks and striae located on macromammal remains coming from two Palaeolithic sites: Grotta dei Santi (GR) and Grotta Paglicci (FG). The aim is to compare bone modifications of different origin and to test the method on archaeological samples, in order to understand how this can be employed to better interpret the taphonomic evidences in future works. Riassunto - La microsco...

In SSHOC Task 5.7 (Open Linked Data. Archaeology Case Study), a virtual reconstruction of the Roman theatre in Catania will be created as an example of an actual transition of archaeological data to the cloud, i.e. from data silos on individual computers to webservices. The case study is based on a unified workflow that starts with the archaeological documentation and results in a virtual reconstruction. With this workflow, data manually acquired during an excavation and traditionally stored on paper can now be stored in the cloud and used for 3D visualisations of the site. The workflow uses tools that are being developed by the task partners, such as idai.field for exacavation documentation and the Extended Matrix for 3D reconstruction. The task partners will document the existing systems with their individual workflows and apply them to existing as well as newly created data on the Roman theatre. They will then work on combining these tools with the aim of creating an overarching ...

Cut-marked and broken human bones are a recurrent feature of Magdalenian (~17-12,000 years BP, uncalibrated dates) European sites. Human remains at Gough's Cave (UK) have been modified as part of a Magdalenian mortuary ritual that combined the intensive processing of entire corpses to extract edible tissues and the modification of skulls to produce skull-cups. A human radius from Gough's Cave shows evidence of cut marks, percussion damage and human tooth marks, indicative of cannibalism, as well as a set of unusual zig-zagging incisions on the lateral side of the diaphysis. These latter incisions cannot be unambiguously associated with filleting of muscles. We compared the macro- and micro-morphological characteristics of these marks to over 300 filleting marks on human and non-human remains and to approximately 120 engraved incisions observed on two artefacts from Gough's Cave. The new macro- and micro-morphometric analyses of the marks, as well as further comparisons w...

Custom-made light booth for creating photogrammetry 3D models Zooarchaeology in Cyprus: Why going Digital? Zooarchaeological reference collections are fundamental tools for the successful identification of animal remains from archaeological sites. However, physical reference collections are not always accessible to researchers, especially because most of the time identifications and recording need to take place in the field. In Cyprus, the existing zooarchaeological reference collections are scattered among the different institutions and/or university departments. An innovative way of unifying the various physical reference collections on the island while making them visible to both researchers and the wider public is through the creation of 3D digital replicas of bones by using available digitization technology. This is particularly useful during the time of the Covid era when both resources and mobility are more restricted than ever. Methods After experimenting with various digitization techniques, photogrammetry (https://bit.ly/3CJf8s5) has been chosen as the most ideal method.

The Acheulean handaxe has been described by Wymer (1982) as the enigma of the Lower Palaeolithic. Whilst most now agree that it fulfilled a role as a heavy duty butchery tool there is still considerable debate concerning the significance of its distinctive morphology and, in particular, the presence of symmetry, often in more than one plane. This paper reports on experiments designed to empirically test one of the theories for the presence of symmetry, namely that a high degree of symmetry improves the handaxe's effectiveness as a butchery tool. Two fallow deer carcasses were butchered using eight handaxes of varying degrees of symmetry, and the artefacts' effectiveness for butchery was measured in a variety of ways. Results show that there does not appear to be a clear relationship between degree of symmetry and the effectiveness of a handaxe for butchery and that the most important handaxe attribute where butchery is concerned is a multipurpose cutting edge.

Perforated batons, usually made from a segment of antler and formed of a sub-cylindrical shaft and at least one perforation, have been documented across Europe from sites throughout the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. The function of perforated batons is still debated. We present here three Magdalenian perforated batons from the site of Gough's Cave (Somerset, UK); these are unique to Britain and represent an important northern example of this artifact type. Our technological analysis revealed that the Gough's Cave perforated batons did not have a purely symbolic purpose, but were clearly used as tools as demonstrated by extensive use-wear on the perforations' edges and ancient fractures across both the distal parts and the shafts. The reconstruction of the chaîne opératoire suggests that the engraving of the deep curved lines within the perforation of each baton was a functional readjustment following the significant distortion of the perforation by use. Additionally, oblique bands of incisions were engraved on two of the batons' shafts possibly to provide grip on the smooth antler surface. Altogether, the modifications of the perforations and shafts of the three batons support the hypothesis that the Gough's Cave batons were used in a task associated with ropes and subjected to considerable forces. Their extensive use may be due to the rarity of the raw material (reindeer antler) in the Cheddar Gorge area during the Magdalenian. Extensive usage aside, the Gough's Cave batons fit typologically and share a number of features with other Magdalenian perforated batons. They can, therefore, add significant insight to the debate about the use of perforated batons.

Understanding the organisation of food production is vital for understanding ancient societies. Multiple factors may influence decision making, including the local environmental capacity of a given area and individual and cultural preferences. This study compares zooarchaeological data from sites across the length and breadth of the Holocene Near East with modelled patterns of land use. The goal is to determine how far variation in the capacities of local landscapes impacted the choices made in animal production. Our approach allows us to investigate trends through time as well as between different regions of the Near East. The spatial and temporal scales employed also mean we can investigate the relationship between food production and climate trends. We find substantial patterning in the choices made in animal production, reflecting complex and regionally diverse production approaches. We demonstrate a prioritisation of individual and societal preferences to produce specific animals which is rarely impacted by either short or long term changes in aridity. We also find that the emergence of urban sites has a major impact on provisioning structures, and argue that the resulting organisational forms may have resulted in urban sustainability at the expense or rural sites.

Here we present preliminary results from an archaeological survey carried out in the Erqueyez Lemgasem
archaelogical site, massif located in the Western Sahara. During the field survey numerous taffonis with rock
art were located in the area as well as described in previous studies. The study was supported by a cooperation
project between Saharawi and Spanish researchers.

The evidence of the bone and antler exploitation at Paglicci Cave (Rignano Garganico, Foggia, Southern Italy) are presented in the article. The analysis of the 104 osseous artefacts found in the Upper Palaeolithic sequence of the cave has allowed the authors to reconstruct the choices made by the prehistoric hunters both in terms of hunting and exploitation of hard animal materials for tool fabrication. Only some hunted animals bones were chosen for making the tools: deer, horse, aurochs and wild boar. A noteworthy observation concerns the lack of an interconnection between the kinds of species represented in the faunal assemblages and those used for the production of bone (and antler) tools. Even though the small number of pieces in each individual layer did not allow for statistical inferences, the authors could draw some interesting conclusions on the morpho-technological features of the artifacts, finding that some tool types appear to be linked to particular periods.

In 1971, a complete burial of an adolescent male (Paglicci II) was found in the Evolved Gravettian layers at Grotta Paglicci (Rignano Garganico, Foggia, Southern Italy). Nearly 20 years after (1988e1989), the burial of a young woman belonging to the same cultural complex (Paglicci III) was brought to light. The re-examination of ochre and grave goods/parures from both burials provided new insights about the ritual behaviour and the technological know-how in raw material processing of the Gravettian groups. Analyses were carried out by means of 3D optical microscopy, polarized light microscopy in thin section, XRD, ICP-OES, SEM, TEM, HPLC and ToF-SIMS. Investigation was performed on a fragment of manganese oxides bearing deep incisions (discovered between the ankles of Paglicci II), which is nearly unique in the Upper Palaeolithic funerary contexts. Use-wear observations on this block suggested that it was used to obtain black pigment with different kinds of actions. Ochre materials were analysed in order to identify their nature and their processing techniques. This study was integrated with the study of a sample of natural local reddish soil and with experimental analyses carried out by grinding coarse he-matites under various operative conditions. Results detected the characteristics of raw materials: a nanosized hematite-rich clayey natural material, likely technologically ready for use (Paglicci III ochre), and a mixture of a clayeyesilty sand with a natural earthy-micaceous hematite (Paglicci II ochre). New inferences from the behavioural standpoint (such as the use/non-use of the grave goods, the connection between the parure shells and the sex of the dead and the hairstyling of the woman) as well as a range of possible raw material procurement sources are discussed.

Goto Kakizaki (GK) rats represent a useful model of type 2 diabetes, having hypertrophic pancreatic islets (PI), lower number of -cells in which highly reduced mitochondrial (mt) DNA exists within the fragmented mt network. We applied the dSTORM nanoscopy for sequence-specific super-resolution visualization of mtDNA in combination with short DNA probes capable of self-hybridization, termed molecular beacons. To visualize mtDNA by 3D dSTORM, we immunostained nucleoids of insulin-positive cells by TFAM, Twinkle and antiDNA antibodies. To visualize the specific sequences of mtDNA, we have constructed specific probes (ND5, DLOOP, 7S and ND6) by standard PCR reaction with incorporation of labeled nucleotides either with Alexa Fluor 647, Cy3B, CF568 or biotin. The typical probe had length between 100 and 1500 bp. The employed fluorophores were able to photoblink in reducing media, hence were suitable for dSTORM nanoscopy with ~25 nm x,y-resolution after their hybridization to specific mtDNA sequences. We have combined in situ hybridization [1] technique in the first channel with the dSTORM immunocytochemistry in a second channel, visualizing nucleoids by either anti-DNA, Twinkle or TFAM. 3D dSTORM measurement was performed on a Vutara SR-200 nanoscope. For nucleoids segmentation and their 3D rendering, Delaunay tessellation and subsequent modeling by principal component analysis was used [2]. Using such double color 3D imaging, we characterized positioning on/inside the nucleoid spheroids for so-called D-loop sequences of mtDNA, and we compared it with the positioning of ND5 gene encoding sequences. We were also able to resolve a distinct size distribution of nucleoids of the diabetic Goto Kakizaki -cells.

[1] Alán L, Zelenka J, Ježek J, Dlasková A, Ježek P., Fluorescent in situ hybridization of mitochondrial DNA and RNA. Acta Biochim Pol 57(4):403-8; 2010.                                   
[2] Alán L, Špaček T, Ježek P., Delaunay algorithm and principal component analysis for 3D visualization of mitochondrial DNA nucleoids by Biplane FPALM/dSTORM. Eur Biophys J. 45(5):443-61; 2016.

La crosse de Saint-Germain, par Nathalie Ginoux, Christophe Moulherat et Nathalie Fleury, in Les temps mérovingiens,  Dossier d'Archéologie Hors-série n° 31, octobre 2015-p. 50-57.

L’imagerie numérique 3D au service de l’orfèvrerie mérovingienne, l’exemple de la crosse de Saint Germain.

Open-source technology not only has facilitated the expansion of the greater research community, but by lowering costs it has encouraged innovation and customizable design. The field of automated microscopy has continued to be a challenge in accessibility due the expense and inflexible, non-interchangeable stages. This paper presents a low-cost, open source microscope 3-D stage. A RepRap 3-D printer was converted to an optical microscope equipped with a customized, 3-D printed holder for a USB microscope. Precision measurements were determined to have an average error of 10 μm at the maximum speed and 27 μm at the minimum recorded speed. Accuracy tests yielded an error of 0.15%. The machine is a true 3-D stage and thus able to operate with USB microscopes or conventional desktop microscopes. It is larger than all commercial alternatives, and is thus capable of high depth images over unprecedented areas and complex geometries. The repeatibility is below 2-D microscope stages, but testing shows that it is adequate for the majority of scientific applications. The open source microscope stage costs less than 3% to 9% of the closest proprietary commercial stages. This extreme affordability vastly improves accessibility for 3-D microscopy throughout the world.

discovery of a fossil that supposedly provided a link between apes and humans: Eoanthropus dawsoni (Dawson's dawn man). The publication generated huge interest from scientists and the general public. However, 'Piltdown man's' initial celebrity has long been overshadowed by its subsequent infamy as one of the most famous scientific frauds in history. Our re-evaluation of the Piltdown fossils using the latest scientific methods (DNA analyses, high-precision measurements, spectroscopy and virtual anthropology) shows that it is highly likely that a single orang-utan specimen and at least two human specimens were used to create the fake fossils. The modus operandi was found consistent throughout the assemblage (specimens are stained brown, loaded with gravel fragments and restored using filling materials), linking all specimens from the Piltdown I and Piltdown II sites to a single forger—Charles Dawson. Whether Dawson acted alone is uncertain, but his hunger for acclaim may have driven him to risk his reputation and misdirect the course of anthropology for decades. The Piltdown hoax stands as a cautionary tale to scientists not to be led by preconceived ideas, but to use scientific integrity and rigour in the face of novel discoveries.

Here we present preliminary results from an archaeological survey carried out in the Erqueyez Lemgasem
archaelogical site, massif located in the Western Sahara. During the field survey numerous taffonis with rock
art were located in the area as well as described in previous studies. The study was supported by a cooperation
project between Saharawi and Spanish researchers.

Digital microscopic analysis is here applied to the study of marks produced on bones by different stone tools. Two unretouched flint flakes and two burins have been used to inflict cut marks on fresh, boiled and dry bone. Five striations have been produced for three times on each mate rial with each tool. First time single cut marks have been inflicted; second time each groove has been inflicted moving the hand two times in the same direction; third time each groove has been inflicted using the tool like a saw, moving the hand bidirectionally. Cross sections from the median part of each groove have been analysed using an Hirox 3D digital microscope (KH-7700) and metrical parameters have been collected (depth, breadth at the floor and breadth at the top of the groove). In order to describe the shape of each cross section the ratio between the breadth at the top and the breadth at the floor, as well as the ratio between the breath at the top and the depth of cut marks have been calculated. Preliminary results show that tool wear, bone conditions and the way in which cut marks were inflicted influence grooves shape. Large variability of the recorded parameters doesn't allow to discriminate between different stone tools and different actions.

In this work we tested the application of 3D microscopy
to technological analysis of artistic engravings on Palaeolithic
mobiliary art objects. The aim of this research is
to understand the technical and artistic procedures followed
by prehistoric artists. Here we analysed an unpublished
right mandible of Bos primigenius (auroch), coming
from the portable art assemblage of Paglicci Cave (Foggia,
Southern Italy). This site shows an artistic production
of exceptional importance that offers an essential record
about Paleolithic mobiliary art in Italy (from Gravettian to
Final Epigravettian). The studied mandible, coming from
Evolved Epigravettian layers, displays an engraved motif
of difficult interpretation. Before studying the archaeological piece we produced
an experimental programme in order to compare archaeological
data with those obtained through replication
under controlled parameters. We produced a set of
experimental engravings on bone using burins and not
retouched blanks. The experimental and archaeological
engravings were analysed by means of a Hirox 3D Digital
Microscope KH-7700.Cross sections from the median
part of each groove have been observed and metrical
parameters have been collected (depth, breadth at the
floor and breadth at the top of the groove). In order to
describe the shape of each cross section the ratio between
the breadth at the top and the breadth at the
floor, as well as the ratio between the breath at the top
and the depth of cut marks have been calculated.
Results of the analysis revealed that the overall contours
of the figure was engraved first, while engraved lines
inside were added afterwards. The experimental data
pointed out that the morphometric analysis reveal no
discriminating characters between the engravings produced
by burins and those produced by not retouched
blanks; on the other hand the micromorphological analysis
showed a clearer context, where we can characterize
the engravings produced by the two kinds of tool. The
analysis of archaeological piece revealed a high homogeneity
of the micromorphological and micromorphometrical
data, feature which suggests the use of a single tool in the realization of the figure, probably a burin. In
addition to it the morphometric data collected on the
mobilary art object were compared with those collected
on a sample of cut marks from the same site. Significant
differences were found between the two samples: in particular the cut marks cross-sections are V-shaped, whilst
the art object is characterised by U-shaped engravings.
As regards the micro-morphological data, this research
seems to give good indications for the detection of parameters
that allow us to recognize the kinds of tool used
for engraving. The application of 3D microscopy reveals
new perspectives for the identification of techniques
and gesture of prehistoric artists. Finally, the differences
found between the art object and the cut marks are of
great interest for developing protocols able to separate
between butchering marks and engravings of dubious
origin.

Digital imaging allows to collect and process morphometric quantitative data on archaeological finds. The Research Unit of Prehistory and Anthropology of the University of Siena is currently developing new protocols for the analysis of bone modifications using a Hirox Digital Microscope KH-7700. This instrument captures 3D images of the observed surfaces enabling the direct observation of butchering marks, artistic engravings and non-anthropic evidences (for instance tooth marks) from several points of view; it also allows a rapid procurement of several quantitative data (linear and angular measurements) that can be processed through univariate and multivariate statistics. After the analysis of more than four hundred specimens, we are presenting in this paper the results of several case-studies from Italian Palaeolithic and Metal Age sites: we demonstrated that processing quantitative data it is possible to separate between butchering marks inflicted using stone and metal tools; to identify the kind of stone tool used to produce prehistoric artistic engravings; to separate between butchering marks and artistic engravings. All data coming from the analysis of archaeological specimens are compared with those obtained carrying out experimental proofs; it allows to corroborate our results. The encouraging obtained outcome confirms the validity of our protocols and the important role that computer applications and quantitative methods play for understanding prehistory.

Microscopic analysis represents a powerful tool for understanding taphonomy. Our work, as in other studies, aims to identify the origin of different kinds of marks on bones. In this paper, we test the application of a HIROX Digital Microscope KH-7700. This microscope captures 3D images of the bone surface, thus bringing into focus the whole section of striations. This enables the direct observation of their shape from several points of view and the relatively rapid procurement of a variety of measurements (e.g. depth, breadth, angles). This technology has been applied to several butchery experiments, in which both stone and metal tools have been used to produce cut marks on skeletal elements. The morphometrical parameters presented in this paper enabled the correct identification of the different origins of experimental striations and were further tested on two archaeological sets of cut marks inflicted by both metal blades and flint flakes or tools. Therefore, the obtained experimental records constitute a useful database for archaeological remains. The morphometrical parameters developed and implemented in this study represent objective criteria for identifying the origin of cut marks which can be processed through statistical analysis.

This study uses a combination of digital microscopic analysis and experimental archaeology to assess stone tool cut marks on animal bones. We used two un-retouched flint flakes and two burins to inflict cut marks on fresh, boiled, and dry ungulate bones. The experiment produced three series of three engravings on each bone with each of the experimental tools. The first series involved one single stroke; the second, two strokes in the same direction; and the third, multiple strokes using a to-and-fro movement. We analyzed the striations using a Hirox 3D digital microscope (KH-7700) and collected metric and profile data on the morphology of the cut marks. In order to describe the shape of each cross section, we calculated the ratio between the breadth at the top and the breadth at the floor of cut marks. Preliminary results show that both the tool type and the method of creating the cut mark influence the shape of the resulting groove. In our experiment, morphological parameters can be used to differentiate between marks produced using un-retouched flint flakes and those produced using burins. However, neither morphological nor morphometric analysis allows us to identify the mechanical motion used to produce the cuts, nor the state of the bone (fresh, boiled, or dry) at the moment of marking.

Evidence of Neanderthals using bear remains as retouchers is rare. In the sedimentary unit 5 of Scladina
Cave (Belgium; Weichselian Early Glacial, MIS 5d to 5b), twenty-six bone retouchers have been
discovered. Among these, six have been made from cave bear bones (four from a femur and two from two
tibiae). The presence of lithic splinters, still embedded in grooves, can be convincingly associated with
their function as knapping tools. Particularly interesting are six bone fragments, including four fragments
used as retouchers and two unused splinters, which have been refitted together to reconstitute an almost
complete cave bear femur diaphysis. These specimens present modifications in the form of cut marks,
scraping marks, impact notches and typical fractures of percussions on green (fresh) bone, sometimes
overlapping each other, that allow for a complete understanding of the operational sequence in the
production of bone retouchers at this site. The identification of a sophisticated operational sequence,
where each action succeeds another in the production of a bone tool, is a major argument in favor of
predetermination that guided the Neanderthal actions, and is similar to that described for stone tool
chaîne opératoire.

The appearance of portable artistic objects during the Upper Palaeolithic is characterised by a combination
of a wide choice of techniques, use of different materials and a diversity of iconographic
expression, with many objects made of bone and antler decorated with animal representations.
Taphonomic and experimental approaches have been systematically applied in an effort to understand
the technical and artistic procedures followed. In this study, we applied a new combination of 3-
dimensional microscopy (focus variation optical microscope) and micro-CT scanning to the analysis of
two Magdalenian engraved specimens: a reindeer antler from the site of Neschers (France), engraved
with the partial image of a horse in left profile, and a horse metatarsal from Courbet Cave, Penne
(France), engraved with a horse head also in left profile. Results of the analysis suggest that both the
Neschers and Courbet Cave engravings had been prepared before being carved. The overall contours of
the horse body/head were incised first, while anatomical features were added afterwards. In the
Neschers case, the incision resulted from the repeated scratching of a previously made incision in order
to enlarge the engraving, possibly reflecting the engraver’s aesthetic sense. The combination of the
techniques used in this study is applicable to fragile or unique archaeological specimens. Micro-CT
scanning, in particular, provides non-invasive means for identifying engravings that are obscured by
encrusted sediment. The application of these techniques can potentially open new avenues for the
authentication, technical and gestural recognition and interpretation of incised forms and artistic
creativity.

Cut-marks on fossil bones and teeth are
an important source of evidence in the reconstruction
of ancient butchery practices. The analysis
of butchery marks has allowed archaeologists to
interpret aspects of past subsistence strategies and
the behavior of early humans. Recent advances in
optical scanning microscopy allow detailed measurements
of cut-mark morphology to be undertaken.
An example of this technology is the Alicona 3D
InfiniteFocus imaging microscope, which has been
applied recently to the study of surface modifications
on bones and teeth. Three-dimensional models generated
by the Alicona microscope have been used
to identify cross-sectional features of experimental
cut-marks that are characteristic for specific cutting
actions (e.g., slicing, chopping, scraping) and different
tool types (e.g., metal versus stone tools). More
recently, this technology has been applied successfully
to the analysis of 500,000 year-old cut-marked
animal bones from Boxgrove (U.K.), as well as
cannibalized 14,700 cal BP year-old human bones
from Gough’s Cave (U.K.). This article describes
molding methods used to replicate fragile prehistoric
bones and teeth, where image quality was adversely
affected by specimen translucency and reflectivity.
Alicona images generated from molds and casts are
often of better quality than those of the original
specimen.

In this study, we analyse the three-dimensional micromorphology of cut marks on fossil mammal remains from a ~0.5 million year old Acheulean butchery site at Boxgrove (West Sussex, southern England), and make comparisons with cut marks inflicted during the experimental butchery of a roe deer (Capreolus caproelus) using a replica handaxe. Morphological attributes of the cut marks were measured using an Alicona imaging microscope, a novel optical technique that generates three-dimensional virtual reconstructions of surface features. The study shows that high-resolution measurements of cut marks can shed light on aspects of butchery techniques, tool use and the behavioural repertoire of Lower Palaeolithic hominins. Differences between the experimental cut marks and those on the Boxgrove large mammal bones suggest variation in the angle of the cuts and greater forces used in the butchery of the larger (rhinoceros-sized) carcasses at Boxgrove. Tool-edge characteristics may account for some of these differences, but the greater robusticity of the Boxgrove hominins (attributed to Homo heidelbergensis) may be a factor in the greater forces indicated by some of the cut marks on the Boxgrove specimens.

Cutmarks found on the fossilised bones of butchered animals provide direct evidence for the procurement of meat through technological means. As such, they hold some of the oldest available information on cognitive ability and behaviour in human evolution. Here we present a new method that allows a three-dimensional reconstruction of cutmark morphology and the quantification of profile parameters. We have tested this new technique on cutmarks that were experimentally inflicted on a pig rib using a steel knife and an un-retouched flint flake at different angles.
The method allows for the cross-sectional shape, the sharpness and depths of the resulting cutmarks to be quantified. The data show that knife mark sections are characterised by a V-shape or √-shape depending on the inclination of the knife. Cutmarks produced with the flint flake were less clearly defined and generally less sharp than those produced by the knife. We discuss the method's potential to provide new information on butchery technique and cognitive abilities developed by the human lineage, from the earliest tool-using hominins through to modern Homo sapiens.