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“Embryos in the Early Modern and Modern Periods: A Visual Dialogue,” The Healthy Embryo, ed. Jeff Nisker et. al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 97-115.
South Dakota Medicine, 2023
The human embryo is dimensionally complex. As the details of its developmental biology and pathobiology became more established, widely divergent concepts about the embryo emerged in culture, religion, morals, ethics, and law1 and today underlie worldwide controversies about the very meaning of human life. Our investigation began with our belief that historical research into the evolution of our biological and philosophical understanding of the embryo could provide a basis for approaching those controversies. We hypothesized that scientific understandings of conception and fetal development historically influenced the social, cultural, philosophical and legal status of the embryo. We explored the conceptual divergence between embryology and philosophical domains that began in the Renaissance. We confined ourselves to embryology within western civilizations and philosophical and theological doctrine from a predominantly Christian perspective.
Over the last several decades many abortion advocates have attempted to spread confusion and doubt concerning the beginnings of human life. A particularly cynical strategy has involved invoking the authority historical thinkers, especially Doctors of the Church, to support the claim that (at least) early abortion does not constitute homicide because the early embryo is not yet fully human. Anyone familiar with context of these historical thinkers should realize that their specific judgments regarding abortion are now obsolete in virtue of their primitive scientific understanding of embryology. In what follows, I summarize the Aristotelian embryology that explains why these historical thinkers held the views that they did. I then explore how we should best understand their broader ethical views in light of our vastly superior contemporary knowledge of human embryology. Unsurprisingly, it turns out that if we apply the contemporary empirical findings of embryology the very same metaphysical and ethical principles informing the thinking of the historical figures supports the prolife position.
Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
Embryos have different meanings for different people and in different contexts. Seen under the microscope, the biological embryo starts out as one cell and then becomes a bunch of cells. Gradually these divide and differentiate to make up the embryo, which in humans becomes a fetus at eight weeks, and then eventually a baby. At least, that happens in those cases that carry through normally and successfully. Yet a popular public perception imagines the embryo as already a little person in the very earliest stages of development, as if it were predictably to become an adult. In actuality, cells can combine, pull apart, and recombine in a variety of ways and still produce embryos, whereas most embryos never develop into adults at all. Biological embryos and popular imaginations of embryos diverge. This paper looks at some of the historical reasons for and social implications of that divergence.
Journal of the History of Biology, 2010
This essay describes the approach and early results of the collaborative Embryo Project and its on-line encyclopedia (http://embryo.asu.edu). The project is based on a relational database that allows federated searches and inclusion of multiple types of objects targeted for multiple user groups. The emphasis is on the history and varied contexts of developmental biology, focusing on people, places, institutions, techniques, literature, images, and other aspects of study of embryos. This essay introduces the ways of working as well as the long-term goals of the project. We invite others to join the effort, both in this particular project and in joining together in digital collection, archiving, and knowledge generation at the borders of biology and history.
Law and Biomedicine, 2022
From a critical human rights-based approach, Law and Biomedicine addresses available international legal answers to various questions about human life and health affecting highly appreciated individual and social values—namely, autonomy, life, dignity, and moral status, among others. Papers of each lesson are available under request.
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 2015
Journal of Biosocial Science, 1992
Science & Education, 2013
It might seem that an embryo is an embryo, and that there would be a fact of the matter. That seems especially true with respect to the way embryos are presented in textbooks, including high school biology textbooks. This paper looks at three co-existing, competing, and often conflicting views of embryos. Then with a close study of twentieth century high school biology textbooks, it explores suggestions about the ways those books have influenced public impressions of embryos.
2010
Public attention on embryo research has never been greater. Modern reproductive medicine technology and the use of embryos to generate stem cells ensure that this will continue to be a topic of debate and research across many disciplines. This multidisciplinary book explores the concept of a 'healthy' embryo, its implications on the health of children and adults, and how perceptions
European Journal of Endocrinology, 2004
The moral acceptability or non-acceptability of the use of human embryos in research raises questions on several philosophical levels. The mixing-up of these levels results in strongly defended and endless debates. In this contribution, arguments on three levels will be discussed, the ontological, the practical and instrumental and the level of human relationships. It is concluded that, on the latter level, the moral problems of the other two are significant, but not conclusive. The decision to allow or to ban research with human embryos is charged with full human responsibility.
To appear in: G. Irby (ed.) Wiley Blackwell Companion to Greek and Roman Science, Medicine, and Technology. Expected publication 2015.
Austin Journal of Anatomy, 2024
Embryogenesis, the process of human development from fertilization to birth, involves several stages such as the formation of bones, muscles, and facial features, which modern science has detailed. Remarkably, the Quran described many of these stages over 1,400 years ago. The Quran accurately identifies the male sperm as determining the baby’s sex, describes the development of the embryo in stages, and mentions the fetus being protected in “a triple darkness,” referring to the layers surrounding it. The Quran also touches on the changes in the womb lining, the protective amniotic fluid, and the formation of bones and muscles, all of which align with modern scientific findings. This shows a striking harmony between ancient scripture and contemporary embryology.
Central European History, 2016
In Embryo: A Defense of Human Life, Robert P. George and Christopher Tollefsen argue that terminal, destructive experimentation on human embryos is morally wrong and should not be supported with state funds. Here I summarize their case which implies that abortion is wrong also. While they admirably explain why many arguments in favor of embryo experimentation fail, I argue that their positive argument against embryo experimentation fails, as do their criticisms of perspectives that justify embryo experimentation. Thus, they do not give good reasons to believe that embryo experimentation is wrong and should be legally prohibited. Keywords: Bioethics, ethics, biomedical ethics, research ethics, abortion, embryo, personhood Bio: Nathan Nobis, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Philosophy at Morehouse College. He has written extensively on ethical topics concerning animals, as well as abortion and other topics in bio-medical ethics. He is the author of the open access textbook Ethics & Animals 101: Thinking Critically About Animal Rights, and a short booklet on personal finance for young adults. His webpage is at NathanNobis.com
This paper analyzes the transformation from the human zygote to the implanted embryo under the prism of substantial change. After a brief introduction, it vindicates the Aristotelian ideas of substance and accident, and those of substantial and accidental change. It then claims that the transformation from the multicelled zygote to the implanted embryo amounts to a substantial change. Pushing further, it contends that this substantial change cannot be explained following patterns of genetic reductionism, emergence, and self-organization, and proposes Gustavo Bueno's idea of anamorphosis as a means to encapsulate criticism against such positions.
Austin Publishing group, 2018
Human development begins with fertilization. Fertilization means that the male gametocyte sperm and the female gametocyte cell oocyte combine to bring the zygote. Male and female embryologic development is called gametogenesis: Oogenesis and spermatogenesis can be examined in two subsections. Gametes that are formed from the epiblast layer during the second week of development and then settle in the wall of the vitellus sac. At about the fourth week, they begin migrating to the developing gonads on the back wall of the embryo. The main goal of this review to summarize the gametogenesis period by showing special embryologic models. A large number of studies examined the gametogenesis period although it is not still completely understood. This review summarizes the literature concerning the gametogenesis period and introduction to embryology. We discuss the latest findings in this field; suggesting that gametogenesis period may have a potential role in the management of fertility process.
History and philosophy of the life sciences, 2000
From the time that James Thomson and colleagues (1998) fi rst announced the successful derivation of human embryonic stem cell (hESC) lines, there has been a heated debate about the ethical acceptability of hESC research because this research entails the destruction of human embryos (see Prainsack et al., 2008a). In an effort to quell this debate, governments, quasi-governmental organizations, and professional organizations around the world have sought to develop ethical standards for embryo research and hESC research, and to entrench these standards in laws or research guidelines. Together, these many and varied ethical and legal standards for embryo research and hESC research currently shape the fi eld of stem cell science. Their importance can be measured by the fact that scientists consider these standards In an effort to quell ongoing debate about the ethics of human embryonic stem cell (hESC) research, there have been concerted efforts to develop ethical standards for both emb...
2019
The paper discusses images of prenatal development created by Ernst Haeckel and Lennart Nilsson. Despite the obvious differences between a 19th-century biologist and philosopher of nature and a 20th-century photographer, substantial similarities exist in the way their respective narrations situate embryos and fetuses within the cultural realm. The paper traces the processes of creating the representations of stages of embryogenesis and the controversies surrounding them, analyzes the discursive frame within which the images are produced and function, and discusses their media specificity. It also examines the metaphysical ambitions surrounding the process of producing embryoand fetal identities and the relation of these identities to the important cultural characteristics of their historical epochs.
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