Iron Age and Roman Salt Making in the Thames Estuary

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2018

This contribution directly relates to the paper published by Wheeler in 1978 entitled 'Why were there no fish remains at Star Carr?'. Star Carr is arguably the richest, most studied and re-interpreted Mesolithic site in Europe but the lack of fish remains has continued to vex scholars. Judging from other materials, the preservation conditions at the site in the late 1940s/early 1950s should have been good enough to permit the survival of fish remains , and particularly dentaries of the northern pike (Esox lucius L., 1758) as found on other European sites of this age. The lack of evidence has therefore been attributed to a paucity of fish in the lake. However, new research has provided multiple lines of evidence, which not only demonstrate the presence of fish, but also provide evidence for the species present, data on how and where fish were being processed on site, and interpretations for the fishing methods that might have been used. This study demonstrates that an integrated approach using a range of methods at landscape, site and microscopic scales of analysis can elucidate such questions. In addition, it demonstrates that in future studies, even in cases where physical remains are lacking, forensic techniques hold significant potential.

Environmental Archaeology, 2002

The growth increments were investigated of late medieval, post-medieval and modern otoliths of plaice, cod and haddock from the North Sea. Thin-sectioned otoliths were used to age all the analysed individuals and to reconstruct their growth patterns. In addition, fish lengths of the archaeological specimens were calculated after the relation between otolith width and fish length was established using modern material. The age and fish length distribution, and the growth patterns obtained on the archaeological material allow inferences about fish trade, market strategies and consumption behaviour on producer sites (coastal sites) and consumer sites. Differences in growth patterns were observed between the archaeological and recent populations of the three demersal species analysed which may be related to a change in fishing pressure through time. However, diachronic changes in species distribution, temperature, food availability and selection of catch in function of market strategies may have played a role as well. Age and body size data allow some inferences about the exploited fishing grounds, but the growth patterns are of limited use in this respect.

Geoarchaeology, 2000

The absence of fish remains in archaeological sites in Moreton Bay, southeast Queensland, Australia, may be a function of recovery techniques, rather than a reflection of resource paucity and late onset of occupation, as has been posited in archaeological literature. An excavation on Peel Island in Moreton Bay was devised, in part, to test this proposition, and a 1-mm mesh screen was used to enhance recovery. But sorting this fine fraction took 20 h. In this article we outline experiments to find a more efficient and effective technique for sieving and sorting fine fraction archaeological deposits, using methods borrowed from soil science. We show how sorting time can be reduced to 2 h 30 min per 100 g sample and argue that the vast increase in knowledge about the site occurring as a result of using the very fine mesh sieve warrants the continued application of these laboratory methods.

Fish represent a key economic, social and ecological group of species that humans have exploited for tens of thousands of years. However, as many fish stocks are going into decline and with little known about the anthropogenic impacts on the health of the marine ecosystem pre-Industrial Revolution, understanding historical and archaeological exploitation of fish species is key to accurately modelling these changes. Here, we explore the potential of collagen peptide mass fingerprinting (also known as Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry, or ZooMS) for identifying fish remains from the Medieval (fifteenth century) Newport ship wreck (Wales, UK), and in doing so we establish a set of biomarkers we consider useful in discriminating between European fish taxa through the inclusion of over 50 reference taxa. The archaeological results identified nine distinct taxonomic groups, dominated by ling (> 40%), and a substantial amount of cod (> 20%) and hake (~ 20%). The vast majority of samples (> 70%) were identified to species level, and the inability to identify the remaining taxonomic groups with confidence using ZooMS was due to the fact that the reference collection, despite being relatively large in comparison to those presented in mammalian studies, reflects only a small proportion of fish biodiversity from this region. Although the results clearly demonstrate the potential for ZooMS as a means of fish bone identification, the sheer number of different fish species that potentially make up ichthyoarchaeological assemblages leads to obvious requirements for the analysis on much greater numbers of modern reference specimens, or the acquisition of collagen sequences.

2007

INTRODuCTION T his paper examines the fish-bone data from Roman sites in Britain. Earlier work collated the evidence from Iron Age sites around the North Sea 1 and sites dating from the first to sixteenth centuries a.d. bordering the southern North Sea. 2 Both of these studies included some Roman assemblages from Britain. For the rest of the country the data remained a dispersed collection of published and unpublished reports. This survey attempts to collate and examine all the evidence from fish-bone assemblages for trends in fish consumption nationally, regionally, and at different types of sites. The evidence for the Iron Age as described by Dobney and Ervynck indicated little and localised consumption of fish. Some trends, observed in a few assemblages, have been used to suggest wider implications for the Roman period, for example Nicholson has suggested there was little evidence for the consumption of deep-sea fish, such as cod and ling, in Northern Britain. 3 The quantities of fish bones are generally much smaller for the Roman period compared with a few centuries later, when fishing for herring and cod became of such commercial importance. 4 Collating these data was an opportunity to assess whether the cultural effects of the Roman invasion and subsequent occupation discernibly altered patterns of fish consumption in a manner distinct from preceding periods. There could be differences between areas or sites distinctly Roman, such as forts or towns, and native settlements. The indigenous population living close to forts and towns were most likely to absorb new and fashionable trends in food and culture, while other remote communities continued in an Iron Age tradition. By the fourth century most villa-owners were of British stock but had become integrated into Roman provincial mores. Similarly, many army officers would have been British strongly influenced by Roman culture, though with a British slant. Changes in culture affect what and how you eat, introducing new foods, cuisine, and meal structures. A mark of distinction and upward mobility, such changes may be visible from the range of fish species that were eaten, represented by surviving fish bones. King has shown evidence of Romanisation reflected in the changing proportions of cattle, sheep, and pig in bone assemblages across the Empire. 5 However there are some intrinsic problems with Roman fish-bone assemblages; they are often relatively small, even where extensive sieving has been carried out. On sites where all the bone 6

Extensive accumulations of animal remains, in the absence of anthropogenic contextual evidence, tend to be interpreted in strictly palaeobiological terms. The fact that anthropogenic thanatocoenoses may, to a great extent mimic natural ones has so far not been documented in detail. This paper gives an example of a recent man-made accumulation of fish remains, some characteristics of which might lead researchers to incorrect thinking. Should the assemblage be covered by sediment and later excavated, it would probably be misinterpreted as a product of mass mortality of isolated populations in seasonal pools. In particular, the large number of specimens retrieved, the undisturbed articulation of most skeletal elements and the small size of the fishes, together with an almost complete absence of signs of human activity could lead to such a misinterpretation. A palaeontological example of accumulated fish remains, which has very similar characteristics to the present-day one, is also discussed.

A large assemblage of hand collected and sieved fish bone was analysed from medieval and later deposits in Aberdeen. The bulk of the material probably dated to the 13-14 th centuries and 14-15 th centuries, with some of 15-18 th and 19-20 th century date. Very large cod and ling dominated the assemblage, particularly between the 13 th and 15 th centuries. Many of these fish were approaching or well over 100cm total length. Some haddock of smaller size were also found, but were probably underrepresented by hand collection. Increasing taxonomic diversity was found from the 15 th century onwards, while at the same time the largest ling and cod were no longer recovered; this suggested a shift towards shallower or inshore fisheries. Butchery and element patterning was used to explore the possible evidence for fish trade, but it was likely the majority of the fish being consumed were eaten fresh, contrary to conclusions drawn from comparative material from medieval Aberdeen and historical sources documenting Aberdeen"s role in the fish trade. Extensive butchery of the large cod and ling followed a set pattern to reduce the edible parts into smaller, manageable portions, and may have been undertaken by professionals. Numerous small knife marks did not follow set patterns and probably are evidence for food preparation and consumption at the domestic level. Surprising numbers of pathologies were found on the very big cod and ling, including evidence for joint disease, injuries and tumour type growths.

Fish remains have been recovered from seven Upper Palaeolithic sites in the Fucino Basin, central Italy. Analyses of fish remains from one of these sites, Grotta di Pozzo, are presented here and discussed in relation to previous research on fish remains from other Fucino Basin sites. It is recognised that in previous studies little consideration has been given to identifying, or confirming accumulation agent(s) for fish remains. Three potential non-human accumulation agents are identified and considered in detail, but these do not explain the element representation patterns for fish remains recovered at Grotta di Pozzo. As such, it is likely that the fish bones from this site do represent the remains of human activity. Given this interpretation, the assemblage characteristics suggest that Grotta di Pozzo represents a site used for exploitation and processing of fish for transportation for later consumption, most likely on a seasonal basis. Further work on the fish from other Fucino Basin sites is needed to reliably rule out non-human deposition and increase understanding of fishing strategies in the Fucino Basin during the late Glacial period.

This report presents an analysis of the fish bones from St. John's Triangle, Cambridge. This assemblage comprised sieved and hand collected bone from phases dating from the 2/3 rd centuries through to the 19/20 th centuries AD. Most of the material was from the 16 th , late 16 th and early 17 th century phases. The identifiable assemblage was of moderate size, but broad changes through time can be seen and are consistent with general English trends through the medieval and early modern period, namely a shift towards increasing use of marine resources through time. The late 16 th and early 17 th century deposits are dominated by remains of large cod, which were imported to the site as a prepared and preserved foodstuff. These phases also feature several thousand large cod family rays and spines, which are an unusual deposit and which most likely represent the remains of dozens of large, preserved cod. A few finds of cod pre-date the late 16 th century and suggest small quantities of fresh, whole cod were being consumed alongside some preserved imports, but prior to the late 16 th century, cod and cod family fish were a minor component of the diet.

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2005

Vale and Gargett (J. Archaeol. Sci. 29 (2002) 57) discuss the finds from sieving experiments through 6 mm, 3 mm, and 1 mm mesh sizes from Arrawarra-I, a coastal midden site in Australia. They claimed that the relationship between sieve mesh size and both taxonomic richness and abundance is not straightforward. We reanalyzed Vale and Gargett's data to estimate species richness in larger sample sizes. By fitting logarithmic series to the data, we calculated the alpha diversity, and used that statistics to predict number of species expected at a given sample size. This statistical method is called ''the equivalent alpha diversity method for abundifaction''. We demonstrate that taxonomic diversity would have been higher (14 species rather then 10) for an NISP of 2000 bones, sieved through a 1 mm mesh. We also demonstrate that Vale and Gargett's conclusion is flawed due to their small sample size (432 identified bones out of 60,000), inadequate sampling methods and poor analytical methodology. By using Vale and Gargett's data, we reach the opposite conclusion, and show that the use of 3 and 1 mm mesh sieves is indeed important in measuring diversity of archaeological assemblages in general, and of fish assemblages in particular. (I. Zohar), miriamb@ vms.huji.ac.il (M. Belmaker).

This report presents an analysis of the fish bones from Grand Arcade, Cambridge. This assemblage comprised sieved and hand collected bone from the 11-12 th century to the 19 th century, with most material from sieved 14 th century deposits. Results indicated a variety of fish were exploited from freshwater and marine habitats, with a reliance on whiting and herring. The 12 th century deposits had an unusually high proportion of freshwater fish, but quantities were low. Cod appeared for the first time in the 14 th century, relatively late compared to many English sites. Preserved cod were likely imported from two separate sources, one in the 14 th century and one in the 16 th , and each was associated with different butchery patterning, element proportions and fish sizes. Eels were surprisingly absent, appearing only in the 16 th century, which might indicate the relative wealth of these deposits. Large flatfishes began to be exploited in the 16 th century, indicating an expansion of fishing grounds and fish species available. Some indication of the declining quality of the river systems was provided by changing freshwater fish species.

IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2009

The majority of the works concerning fish productivity are based in fish landing records. However, in order to understand the causes of variability in fish productivity (natural and/or anthropogenic) it is essential to have information from periods when human impacts (e.g., fisheries) are considered unimportant. This can be achieved through the use of fish remains, i.e. scales, vertebrae and otoliths, from sediment records. The obtained data can be used to develop time series of fish stocks revealing the history of fish population dynamics over the last centuries or millennia. The majority of these works are located in Eastern Boundary Current Systems (e.g., Benguela, Peru-Humboldt, California), because these are associated with coastal upwelling and high productivity, which in some cases is at the origin of low bottom oxygen levels, leading to scale preservation. A search for fish remains in the Portuguese margin sediments is in progress in the context of the ongoing research project POPEI (High-resolution oceanic paleoproductivity and environmental changes; correlation with fish populations), which intend to fill the gap in studies of this type for the Canary Current System. In this paper we review some general ideas of the use of fish remains, related studies, methodologies and data processing, as well as presenting the first results of POPEI.

A small assemblage of sieved fish remains was analysed from a medieval site on Lindisfarne. Haddock, cod and whiting were the most commonly consumed species, with small numbers of other taxa recovered, including herring and flatfish. Most were probably caught in local inshore or coastal waters, and most were only of moderate size. It is likely the remains include gutting and processing waste (including tiny fish that may have been stomach contents from fish or sea birds), as well as kitchen or table waste.

It has been argued that no fishing occurred during the British Iron Age. However, sites in the Northern Isles have been producing large assemblages of small fish bones, complicating the picture. This project reconsiders this argument by investigating fish bone assemblages excavated from the site of Swandro on Rousay, Orkney. Multiple analytical methods were applied to the assemblages in order to determine the range of species present, the method of capture and treatment of the fish, and their influence on diet. Preliminary work consisted of identifying each individual bone to element and species. Due to the size of the average specimen, scanning electron microscopy was employed to examine samples for any indication of butchery, charring, or digestion. Light isotope analysis was also utilised to determine the effects of fish on the diets of the inhabitants of Iron Age Swandro. Results from these analytical approaches indicated the occurrence of low intensity fishing activity and consumption that had no significant effect on diet. However, intensification in fishing would begin to occur during the Later Iron Age, as evident by a shift in the composition of fish bone assemblages. This project can be considered a pilot study in the successful application of analytical methods to faunal assemblages in order to develop a more detailed interpretation of the environmental aspects of a site.